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THE 


NATURALIST'S    GUIDE 


COLLECTING  AND  PEE  SERVING   OBJECTS 
OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


BY 
C.   J.   MAYNARD. 


HlustrateU, 


BOSTON: 
CUPPLES    AND    KURD,    PUBLISHERS, 

THE  ALGONQUIN  PRESS. 

NEWTONVILLE : 
C.    J.    MAYNARD   AND   COMPANY. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  In  the  year  1870,  by 

FIELDS,     OSGOOD,     &     CO., 
i  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusett 


COPYRIGHT.  S.  E.  CASSINO,   1877. 


COPYRIGHT,  C.  J.  MAYNAUD  &  CO.,  1887. 


f\rz  You  Interested 

IN 

Datura!  J-listory? 

THEN  you   want  to  send  ten  cents  for  our  new    Catalogue 
(with    over    125   illustrations)  of  Tools  and  Supplies  for 
Naturalists.     We   carry  in   stock  or  can  supply  at  short 
notice  any  Tools   or  Supplies  used  by  Naturalists. 


TAXIDERMIST  POCKET-CASE. 


SCALPELS. 

Ebony  handle,  large,  medium,  small.     All  steel,  medium. 


CARTILAGE   KNIFE. 

Extra  heavy.     Also  the  Hornaday  Skinning  Knife. 


SURGEON'S    DISSECTING   SCISSORS. 


CLASS    EYES. 

If  you  Mount  Birds  you  will  need  GLASS  EYES,  and  we  would  ask  that 
you  examine  the  HURST  EYE,  which  we  claim  to  be  THE  BEST  in  the 
market,  not  only  for  the  natural  effect  which  they  give  but  for  their  freedom 
from  cracks  and  flaws,  and  you  will  find  them  as  large  size  as  is  shown  in  our 
diagrams. 

We  can  also  supply  Leaves,  Grasses,  Mosses,  Sands  and  Smalts  for  Cases, 
Trees  and  Backgrounds  in  innumerable  variety. 


STUMPS. 

Natural,  on  bases  decorated. 

Finished  Rock-work  or  Stands  for  Birds  or  Animals,  Shields  and  Panels  for 
Heads  and  Game  Pieces. 


SQUARE  CLASS  SHADES. 

With  oval,  convex  centres,  for  wall  pieces.      With  or  without  Frames,   and 
Painted  on  Plush  Backs. 

10  x  14,  for  Quail,  Snipe,  Woodcock,  etc. 
16x22,  for  medium-sized  Ducks,  Grouse,  etc. 
18  x26,  large  size  and  pairs  of  Ducks,  etc. 
22x38,  for  large-spread  Birds,  Gulls,  Hawks,  Owls. 


ists,    Botanists    apd    Oolo^i8t5, 

Will  find  what  they  want,  as  well  as  the  Ornithologist. 


COLLECTION  BOX. 


COLLECTING  NETS. 


COLLECTING  CANS. 


FORCEPS. 


EGG  DRILLS. 

Best  style,  extra  fine  steel,  No.  1,  3-32  inch  burr,  short  or  long  handle. 

"         "        "     No.  2,  5-32  inch  burr       "  "          " 

"       "        "        "        "     No.  3,  6-32  inch  burr       "  "         " 

"       "        "        "        "      No.  4,  8-32  inch  burr       "  "          " 

"       "        "        "        "     No.  5,  12-32  inch  burr,  long  handle. 
"       "        "        "        "     No.  6,  16-32  inch  burr     "          " 

Egg  Blowers,  Insect  Pins,  Drying  and  Mounting  Paper,  Data  Blanks,  etc. 


BOOKS 

On  every  branch  of  Natural  History. 


YOUR    SKINS 


WITH 


T  M  N  N  I  N  B. 


Every  sportsman,  taxidermist  and  naturalist  should  have  on  hand  a  bottle 
of  this  Liquor.  With  it  a  skin  can  be  tanned  quickly  and  without  trouble. 

Every  sportsman  has  experienced  the  sensation  of  the  most  poignant 
disappointment  to  arrive  home  and  find  that  the  hair  is  all  coming  off  the 
Fox,  Bear  or  Deer  skin  that  he  has  salted  and  packed  so  carefully  for  many 
a  long  mile.  It  might  have  been  avoided  if  he  had  a  bottle  of  Tannine. 

We  have  testimonials  from  every  section;  the  best  one  is  to  see  the  work 
it  does.  It  speaks  for  itself,  and  talks  right  out  aloud. 


$1.00, 

With  Full  Directions  for  Use. 


We  are  establishing  agencies  in  various  sections  of  the  country,  in  order 
to  place  it  within  easy  reach  of  the  consumer. 


CIVE-IT-A-TRIAL. 


Frank  Blake  Webster  Company, 

NATURALISTS'   SUPPLY   DEPOT, 

4O9  Washington  Street,  Boston,  Mass. 


OU 
n 


INTRODUCTION. 


THE  great  need  of  a  good  illustrated  work  to  guide 
young  naturalists  in  collecting  and  preserving  objects  of 
natural  history  has  induced  me  to  prepare  the  present 
Manual.  In  this  attempt  I  hope  I  have  been  in  some 
degree  successful.  I  have  spared  no  pains  to  bring  to- 
gether, in  a  comprehensive  form,  the  results  of  many  years 
of  experience  in  collecting  and  preserving  objects  of  natu- 
ral history,  both  for  private  cabinets  and  for  scientific 
museums. 

No  popular  work  of  this  kind  has  before  been  published 
in  America.  Throughout  the  present  work  I  have  endeav- 
ored to  encourage  the  young  to  engage  in  the  ennobling 
study  of  Natural  History,  and  to  join  the  band  of  young 
naturalists  so  rapidly  increasing  in  our  land. 

I  trust  the  reader  will  not  by  any  means  keep  the  teach- 
ings of  this  book  secret,  as  some  taxidermists  are  wont  to 
counsel,  but  spread  it  broadcast  among  those  who  would 
profit  by  the  information  I  have  herein  attempted  to  con- 
vey. It  is  intended  for  the  NATURALIST,  whoever  and 
wherever  he  may  be ;  and  as  it  comes  from  a  colaborer  in 
the  common  field,  it  will,  perhaps,  be  well  received. 


iv  INTRODUCTION. 

All  of  Part  First  is  original.  In  preparing  objects  of 
natural  history  I  have  in  a  great  degree  invented  methods 
of  my  own,  and  have  not  given  in  this  work  a  single 
one  that  I  have  not  tested  and  proved  equal  to  all  oth- 
ers, if  not  superior.  To  avoid  confusion,  I  have  given 
only  the  method  which  experience  has  taught  me  to  be 
the  best. 

In  this  connection  my  thanks  are  due  to  Mr.  E.  L. 
Weeks,  whose  excellent  illustrations  will  be  found  to  add 
greatly  to  the  value  of  the  work. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    I. 

COLLECTING   AND   PRESERVING   BIRDS. 
SECT.  PAGI 

I.     HOW   TO   COLLECT 3 

II.    How  TO  PREPARE  SPECIMENS. — INSTRUMENTS,  MATERIALS,  ETC.  10 

III.  MEASURING,  SKINNING,  AND  PRESERVING  BIRDS     .                .  18 

MEASURING 18 

SKINNING 22 

DETERMINING  THE  SEX 27 

CONTEXTS  OF  STOMACH,  ETC.          ......  31 

EXCEPTIONS  TO  THE  USUAL  METHOD  OF  SKINNING         .  81 

TABLE  OF  MEASUREMENTS 82 

IV.  MOUNTING  SPECIMENS 34 

MOUNTING  FRESH  BIRDS          . 84 

MOUNTING  DRIED  SKINS 40 

MOUNTING  BIRDS  WITH  THE  WINGS  EXTENDED  .       .       .41 

CHAPTER    II. 

COLLECTING    AND    PRESERVING    MAMMALS. 
SECT. 

I.    COLLECTING 43 

II.    MEASURING  MAMMALS 45 

SKINNING 46 

METHOD  OF  PREPARING  A  BOOK  FOR  MEASURING  MAMMALS  47 

TABLE  OF  MEASUREMENTS 47 

III.    MOUNTING  MAMMALS •  50 

CHAPTER    III. 
COLLECTING  AND  PRESERVING  INSECTS  FOR  THE  CABINET. 

BEETLES,  OR  COLEOPTERA .55 

BUGS,  OR  HEMIPTERA 57 

GRASSHOPPERS,  CRICKETS,  ETC.,  OR  ORTHOPTERA  .       .        .        .68 


Vi  CONTENTS. 

MOTHS  AND  BUTTERFLIES,  OR  LEPIDOPTERA       ....  68 

DRAGON-FLIES,  ETC.,  OR  NEUROPTERA 60 

BEES,  WASPS,  ETC.,  OR  HYMENOPTERA 61 

FLIES,  MOSQUITOES,  ETC.,  OR  DIPTERA     .  ...  61 

CHAPTEE    IV. 

COLLECTING   AND   PRESERVING   FISHES   AND   REPTILES. 
S«CT. 

I.    FISHES 63 

II.    REPTILES 64 

CHAPTER    V. 

MISCELLANEOUS   COLLECTIONS. 
SlCT. 

I.    CRUSTACEA 69 

COLLECTING  MOLLUSKS 69 

PRESERVING  SHELLS 70 

WORMS,  ANIMAL  PARASITES,  JELLY-FISHES         ...  71 
CORALS,   SEA-ANEMONES,   HYDROIDS   AND   BRYOZOA,   STAR- 
FISHES, SEA-URCHINS.  HOLOTHURIAS,  OR  SEA-CUCUMBERS,- 

SPONGES  AND  SEA-WEEDS 72 

II.    PREPARING  SKELETONS 73 

MOUNTING  SKELETONS 73 

CHAPTER    VI. 

COLLECTING  AND  PRESERVING  EGGS 76 

METHOD  OF  PREPARING  A  BOOK  FOR  RECORDING  THE  MEASURE- 
MENTS OF  EGGS  78 


LIST  AND  EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES. 


PLATE  I.  INSTRUMENTS  used  in  preparing  birds,  etc.,  and  for 
blowing  eggs.  Fig.  1,  Common  Pliers;  Fig.  2,  Cutting  Pliers  ;  Fig. 
3,  Tweezers;  Fig.  4,  Scalpel;  Figs.  5  and  6,  Egg-drills;  Fig.  7, 
Blow-pipe ;  Fig.  8,  Hook  for  removing  embryos  from  eggs. 

PLATE  II.  —  WINGS,  showing  the  positions  of  the  different  feathers, 
as  follows :  — 

Fig.  1.  Wing  of  a  Red-tailed  Hawk  (Buteo  borealis,  Vieill.). — 
a  indicates  the  primaries,  or  quills ;  b,  secondaries ;  c,  tertiaries ; 
d,  scapularies ;  g,  greater  wing-coverts ;  f,  lesser  wing-coverts  ;  e,  spuri- 
ous wing,  or  quills. 

Fig.  2.  Wing  of  a  Coot,  or  Mud  Hen  (Fulica  Americana,  Gmelin).— 
a  indicates  the  primaries,  or  quills ;  b,  secondaries ;  c,  tertiaries ; 
d,  scapularies ;  e,  spurious  wing,  or  quills. 

The  tertiaries  and  scapularies  are  elongated  in  most  of  the  aquatic 
birds,  and  in  some  of  the  Waders.  They  are  always  prominent,  if  not 
elongated,  on  long-winged  birds,  such  as  the  Eagles,  Hawks,  Owls, 
Vultures,  etc. ;  while  they  are  only  rudimentary  on  short-winged  birds, 
such  as  the  Thrushes,  Warblers,  Sparrows,  etc. 

PLATE  III.  HEAD  OF  THE  BALD  EAGLE  (Halicetus  leueocephalus, 
Savigny),  showing  the  different  parts,  as  follows:  —  a,  the  throat; 
b,  chin;  c,  commissure,  or  the  folding  edges  of  the  mandibles;  d, 
under  mandible ;  s,  gonys ;  p,  gape ;  g,  upper  mandible ;  h,  culmen ; 
i,  tip;  j,  base  of  bill;  k,  cere  (naked  skin  at  the  base  of  the  upper 
mandible,  prominent  in  the  rapacious  birds);  1,  frontal  feathers; 
m,  lores ;  n,  crown  ;  o,  occiput. 


viii  LIST   OF  PLATES. 

The  irides  are  the  colored  circles  that  surround  the  pupil.  The 
color  of  these  decides  the  so-called  "  color  of  the  eye." 

PLATE  IV.  ILLUSTRATES  PREPARING  SKINS.  —  Figs.  1  and  2. 
Corrugated  board,  used  in  drying  skins ;  d,  skin  on  the  board,  in  the 
proper  position.  Fig.  3.  A  "skin"  prepared  for  scientific  use ;  £,  la- 
bel, on  which  is  marked  the  number  and  sex. 

PLATE  V.  DISSECTED  SONG  SPARROW  (Mdospiza  mdodia,  Baird), 
illustrating  the  sexes  in  the  breeding  season,  as  follows  :  —  Fig.  1 .  An 
adult  female  (  9  ) ;  1,1,  peculiar  yellow  glands ;  2,  ovary ;  3,  oviduct ; 
4, lungs.  Fig.  2.  An  adult  male  ( <J) ;  1,  lungs;  2,  peculiar  yellow 
glands;  3,  3,  testicles. 

PLATE  VI.  DISSECTED  SONG  SPARROW,  illustrating  the  sexes 
of  the  young-of-the-year,  in  autumn,  as  follows:  —  Fig.  1.  A  young 
male  (  £ ) ;  1 ,  lungs  ;  2,  2,  yellow  glands  ;  3,  3,  testicles.  Fig.  2.  A 
young  female  (  9  ) »'  1>  1>  yellow  glands  ;  2,  ovary;  3,  lungs;  4,  ovi- 
duct 

PLATE  VII.  OUTLINE  OF  GROUSE,  showing  the  position  of  the 
different  parts,  as  follows :  —  a,  the  back ;  b,  rump ;  c,  upper  tail- 
coverts ;  d,  under  tail-coverts  ;  e,  vent ;  f,  tibia  ;  g,  tarsi ;  h,  breast ; 
i,  side ;  j,  neck ;  k,  hind  neck ;  I,  abdomen  ;  m,  feet ;  n,  throat. 

PLATE  VIII.  ILLUSTRATES  MOUNTING  BIRDS.  —  Figs.  1, 2.  Arti- 
ficial body  ;  a,  bone  of  leg ;  b,  wire  bent ;  c,  wire  clenched ;  f,  h,  tail 
wire.  Fig.  3.  Mounted  bird;  a,  perpendicular  line,  showing  the 
position  of  the  head  compared  with  the  feet  and  base  of  the  stand; 
b,  b,  wires  for  retaining  the  upper  part  of  the  wing  in  position  ;  c,  c. 
wires  for  retaining  the  lower  part  of  the  wing  in  position ;  e,  e,  wires 
for  the  tail ;  d,  showing  the  tail-feathers  plaited ;  f,  stand.  Fig.  4. 
Stand  for  mounting  birds  with  the  wings  extended  ;  b,  b,  parallel 
wires  ;  c,  wires  bent ;  a,  block  of  wood  for  the  bottom  of  the  stand, 
Fig.  5.  Head  of  Cedar-Bird,  to  illustrate  the  elevating  of  the  crest; 
g,  cotton  on  the  pin  ;  b,  feathers  of  the  crest  in  position  on  the  cotton. 

PLATE  IX.  ILLUSTRATES,  MOUNTING  MAMMALS.  —  Fig.  1.  A, 
plank  for  supporting  iron  rods  ;  8,  iron  rod  for  supporting  head  ;  14, 
cap,  nut,  and  screw  for  fastening  the  end  of  the  rod  in  the  skull; 
7, 7, 7,  7,  iron  rods  to  support  the  body ;  5, 6,  5,  6,  caps,  etc.  for  fastening 
the  upper  ends  of  the  rods  to  the  plank ;  17,  17,  17,  17,  caps,  etc.  for 
fastening  the  lower  part  of  the  rods  to  the  stand  (10)  ;  15,  wire  for 
supporting  the  tail ;  16, 16, 16,  16, 16,  16,  16,  16,  artificial  sections  of 


LIST   OF   PLATES.  IX 

hemp,  grass,  or  plaster  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  natural  body. 
Fig.  2.  A,  nut ;  B,  cap ;  C,  thread. 

PLATE  X.  SKELETON  OF  A  GROUSE,  OR  PRAIRIE  HEN  (Cupi- 
donia  cvpido,  Baird),  showing  the  different  bones,  as  follows :  — 
a,  the  skull ;  b,  vertebra  of  the  neck ;  c,  humerus ;  d,  forearm ;  f,  pha- 
langes ;  g,  furcula ;  h,  sternum ;  i,  marginal  indentations ;  j,  thigh ; 
k,  tarsus ;  y,  tibia ;  m,  rump ;  n,  coccygus ;  A,  ribs ;  B,  lower  joint  of 
thigh. 


DIRECTIONS 

FOR   COLLECTING,  PRESERVING,  AND  MOUNTING 

BIRDS,  MAMMALS,   FISHES, 

KTC.,   ETC.,   ETC. 


THE  NATUEALISTS  GUIDE. 

CHAPTER    I. 

COLLECTING   AND    PRESERVING   BIRDS. 

SECTION  I.  How  to  collect.  —  Personal  experience  is  a 
good,  and  in  fact  the  only  adequate,  teacher  we  can  have 
in  learning  any  art.  The  need  of  such  a  teacher  is  felt  by 
none  more  than  by  the  naturalist  who  wishes  to  bring  to- 
gether a  complete  collection  of  the  birds  of  even  his  own 
immediate  district.  Hence  I  trust  I  shall  not  be  accused 
of  egotism,  if,  in,  this  section,  I  endeavor  to  impart  to  the 
reader  some  things  that  experience  has  taught  me. 

It  is  of  first  importance  for  the  collector  to  gain  as  com- 
plete a.  knowledge  as  possible  of  the  notes  and  habits  of 
birds,  and  of  the  localities  frequented  by  those  he  wishes 
to  procure.  This  knowledge  may  be  gained  by  carefully 
studying  the  writings  of  men  who  have  paid  particular 
attention  to  the  subject.  Too  much  dependence  must  not 
be  placed  on  books,  as  the  best  of  these  contain  error  as 
well  as  truth ;  besides,  birds  are  very  variable  in  their  hab- 
its in  different  localities.  The  collector  must  then  depend 
mainly  upon  himself.  He  must  visit  every  locality,  —  the 
mountain-top  and  the  dark  swampy  thicket,  as  well  as  the 
meadow,  the  plain,  or  the  open  forest,  as  in  each  of  these 
localities  he  will  find  species  that  he  may  no*  meet  else- 
where. A  little  patience  will  help  any  ona  through  the 
worst  of  places. 

The  quaking  bog,  where  a  misstep  may  plunge  the  adven- 
turer into  the  slimy  ooze,  is  also  an  excellent  locality  for 


4  THE  NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

certain  species.  But  when  the  collector  returns  home  wet 
and  hungry,  fatigued  and  disheartened,  —  as  he  now  and 
then  will,  —  let  him  not  be  discouraged.  Try  again  !  the 
next  day,  and  even  the  next,  if  need  be,  until  the  desired 
specimen  is  obtained.  After  all,  the  earnest  naturalist  will 
be  amply  rewarded  for  the  exercise  of  patience  and  perse- 
verance by  securing  a  rare  specimen. 

The  true  naturalist  never  thinks  of  cold  and  disappoint- 
ment, of  days  of  fatigue  and  hours  of  patient  watching, 
when  at  last  he  holds  in  his  hand  the  long-searched-for 
bird.  Ample  reward  is  this  for  all  his  former  trials ;  he  is 
now  ready  to  go  into  bog  and  through  brier.  And  thus  the 
enthusiastic  naturalist  travels  on,  not  discouraged  by  toil 
and  trouble,  laughed  to  scorn  by  the  so-called  "practical" 
men,  who  are  unable  to  appreciate  his  high  motive.  This, 
however,  he  forgets  when  in  field  or  study  he  meets  with 
the  cordial  greeting  of  his  brother  naturalist,  as  the}'  with 
mutual  interest  relate  their  discoveries  and  adventures. 

To  the  travelling  collector  a  few  special  hints  are  neces- 
sary. While  visiting  a  remote  region,  but  little  known, 
one  should  not  neglect  to  shoot  numbers  of  every  bird  met 
with,  even  if  they  are  common  species  at  home,  as  they 
will  not  only  furnish  data  on  the  distribution  of  the  species, 
but  they  may  present  interesting  characters  peculiar  to 
that  locality.  If  a  certain  species  appears  common,  do  not 
delay  collecting  specimens,  for  peculiar  circumstances  may 
have  brought  them  together  in  unusual  numbers ;  at  some 
future  time  they  may  be  rare. 

A  well-trained  dog  is  of  great  value  while  collecting 
birds,  especially  the  Quails,  Marsh  Wrens,  Sea-side  and 
Sharp-tailed  Finches, — in  fact,  all  birds 'that  are  difficult  to 
start  in  open  meadows  and  grassy  places.  While  search' 
ing  thickets,  great  watchfulness  should  be  observed,  espe- 
cially in  the  autumn,  when  many  birds  have  no  conspicuous 
note,  otherwise  many  of  the  more  wary  of  the  Warblers 


THE   ART    OF   COLLECTING   BIRDS.  5 

will  escape  notice.  The  slightest  chirp  should  be  care- 
fully followed ;  the  slightest  motion  of  the  branches  closely 
watched.  If  a  bird  is  seen  that  is  not  fully  recognized,  it 
should  be  shot  at  once,  for  in  no  other  way  can  it  be  de- 
termined whether  it  is  not  a  rara  avis. 

By  carefully  watching  the  motions  of  birds,  the  collector 
will  soon  become  so  expert  as  to  be  able  generally  to  dis- 
tinguish the  different  species  of  Warblers,  even  at  a  dis- 
tance. Carefully  scrutinize  also  the  tops  of  tall  forest- 
trees,  as  I  have  there  taken,  in  autumn,  some  of  the  rarest 
Warblers. 

In  spring  male  birds  are  quite  readily  found,  as  they  are 
then  in  full  song ;  but  the  same  caution  must  be  used  in 
collecting  females  that  is  practised  in  autumn,  as  they  are 
generally  shy  and  difficult  to  find.  Hence  it  is  a  good  rule 
always  to  secure  the  female  first,  when  she  is  seen  with  the 
male ;  for,  in  spite  of  all  the  collector's  efforts,  he  will  find 
that  there  will  be  four  males  to  one  female  in  his  collection. 

During  winter  some  birds  may  be  found  in  the  thick 
woods  that  one  would  hardly  expect  to  find  at  this  season, 
such  as  the  Robin,  Golden-winged  Woodpecker,  etc.  The 
open  fields  should  not  be  neglected  even  during  snow- 
storms, as  it  is  then  that  such  ordinarily  cautious  birds  as 
the  Snowy  Owl  may  be  approached  quite  readily ;  or  the 
capture  of  a  Jerfalcon  may  reward  the  collector  for  a 
disagreeable  tramp.  The  salt  marshes  and  sandy  sea- 
shores are  the  resort  of  a  great  many  winter  birds,  and 
the  collector  will  perhaps  find  himself  amply  repaid  for  a 
few  visits  to  these  localities  at  this  season. 

Do  not  neglect  to  collect  the  young  of  birds ;  by  pro- 
curing specimens  of  these  from  the  time  they  become  fully 
fledged  until  they  attain  the  perfectly  mature  plumage, 
one  becomes  familiar  with  all  the  stages  through  which  a 
given  species  passes,  and  will  thus  avoid  many  errors  into 
which  some  of  our  eminent  ornithologists  have  fallen,  — 


6  THE  NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

that  of  mistaking  the  young  of  certain  well-known  birds 
for  a  different  species  from  the  adult,  from  not  being  ac- 
quainted with  the  immature  stages.  All  birds  should  be 
taken  that  exhibit  any  unusual  characters,  such  as  unusu- 
ally large  or  small  bills  or  feet ;  or  change  of  plumage,  such 
as  very  pale,  or  very  bright,  cases  of  albinism,  etc. 

The  gun  used  by  a  collector  should  have  a  small  bore, 
not  larger  than  No.  14,  for  shooting  small  birds ;  for  Ducks, 
and  other  large  water-birds,  one  of  larger  calibre  will  be 
found  more  effectual.  The  best  shot  to  use  for  small  birds 
is  "Dust  shot,"  if  it  can  be  procured ;  if  not,  No.  12  will 
answer.  No.  8  will  do  for  Ducks  and  large  birds.  For 
Hawks  and  Eagles,  Ealy's  wire  cartridges  are  the  best. 

In  shooting  small  birds,  load  as  lightly  as  possible.  Put 
in  no  more  shot  than  is  required  to  kill  the  bird.  As  you 
can  approach  very  near  most  small  birds,  you  will  find, 
by  experiment,  that  you  can  kill  them  with  very  little  shot. 
If  too  much  powder  is  used,  it  will  impel  the  shot  with 
so  much  force  as  to  send  it  completely  through  the  bird, 
thereby  making  two  holes,  when  less  powder,  by  causing 
less  force,  would  have  made  only  one,  and  the  bird  would 
have  been  killed  just  as  effectually.  When  shot  goes  into 
the  body  of  a  bird,  it  generally  carries  feathers  with  it,  and 
in  a  measure  plugs  the  hole ;  but  when  it  is  forced  through 
and  comes  out,  it  often  carries  away  a  small  patch  of  feath- 
ers and  skin,  leaving  an  open  wound,  from  which  the  blood 
flows  freely. 

If  the  bird  is  not  instantly  killed  by  shooting,  the 
thumb  and  forefinger  should  be  placed  with  a  firm  pres- 
sure on  each  side  of  its  body  under  the  wings,  when  it  will 
soon  die.  This  operation  compresses  the  lungs  and  pre- 
vents the  bird's  breathing.  Besides  mercifully  ending  its 
suffering,  its  death  causes  the  flow  of  blood  in  a  great 
measure  to  cease ,  for  this  reason  it  should  be  killed  as 
quickly  as  possible. 


THE   ART    OF    COLLECTING   BIRDS.  7 

The  mouth,  nostrils,  and  vent  should  now  be  plugged 
with  cotton  or  tow.  By  blowing  aside  the  feathers  the  shot- 
holes  may  be  detected ;  if  they  bleed,  or  are  in  the  abdo- 
men or  rump,  a  pinch  of  calcined  plaster  *  should  be  placed 
upon  them ;  this  absorbs  the  blood,  or  any  fluid  that  may 
ooze  out.  When  shot  enters  either  the  abdomen  or  rump, 
it  is  apt  to  cut  the  intestines  and  set  free  the  fluids  con- 
tained therein.  If  the  blood  has  already  soiled  the  feath- 
ers, remove  as  much  as  is  possible  with  a  knife,  then  sprinkle 
plaster  on  the  spot,  and  rub  the  soiled  feathers  gently  be- 
tween the  thumb  and  fingers ;  this,  if  repeated,  will  gen- 
erally remove  any  spots  of  blood,  etc.,  if  the  operation  is 
performed  before  the  blood  becomes  dry.  "When  the  blood 
is  dry,  it  is  removed  after  the  bird  is  skinned,  as  will  be 
hereafter  described. 

Next  make  a  note  of  the  color  of  the  eyes,  feet,  and  bill 
of  the  specimens,  also  note  the  color  of  the  cere  in  birds  of 
prey,  and  the  naked  skin  of  the  lores  and  about  the  bill  of 
the  Herons,  also  about  the  heads  of  the  Vultures.  After 
smoothing  the  feathers  carefully,  place  the  bird  in  a  paper 
cone,f  head  first,  then  pin  or  twist  up  the  larger  end,  tak- 
ing care  not  to  injure  the  tail-feathers.  The  blood  can  be 
washed  from  the  feathers  of  all  the  swimmers,  but  the  bird, 
in  this  case,  should  be  allowed  to  dry  before  packing  in 
paper.  If  grease  or  oily  matter  has  oozed  out  upon  the 
feathers,  the  bird  should  not  be  washed,  but  the  plaster 
be  used  as  before,  only  in  larger  quantities. 

All  traces  of  blood  should  be  instantly  removed  from 
white  feathers,  as  it  is  very  apt  to  stain  them  if  it  remains 
upon  them  long.  The  paper  containing  the  bird  should 

*  This  is  burned  plaster  or  gypsum,  and  is  used  by  stucco-makers. 
If  it  cannot  be  procured,  the  unburned  plaster  or  common  ground  gypsum 
used  by  farmers,  or  air-slacked  lime,  pulverized  chalk,  or  ashes,  — in  fact, 
anything  that  will  absorb  the  blood,  —  will  answer. 

t  The  leaves  of  an  old  pamphlet  are  about  the  right  size  for  making 
/5ones  for  small  birds,  and  can  be  easily  obtained. 


8  THE  NATURALIST'S  GUIDE. 

be  placed  in  a  light  basket,  —  a  willow  fish-basket  is  the 
best  for  this  purpose,  — suspended  by  a  strap  over  the  shoul- 
der, and  resting  upon  the  hip.  If  there  are  but  one  or  two 
birds  in  the  basket,  it  should  be  filled  with  grass,  or  loose 
paper,  to  keep  them  steady,  as  otherwise  they  might  re- 
ceive injury  by  rolling  from  side  to  side.  In  packing  birds, 
avoid  putting  the  largest  at  the  top,  as  their  weight  will 
cause  the  smallest  to  bleed.  Do  not  hold  a  bird  in  the 
hand  any  longer  than  is  necessary  ;  if  possible,  take  it  by 
the  feet  or  bill,  for  the  perspiration  from  the  hand  tends  to 
impair  the  gloss  of  the  plumage. 

A  good  collector  must  practise,  in  order  to  become  a  good 
shot.  He  must  always  keep  his  gun  in  readiness,  for  at 
any  moment  a  bird  that  he  desires  may  start  up  at  his  feet, 
or  peer  out  from  the  bushes  for  only  an  instant  before 
flying  away;  by  being  ready,  he  will  thus  secure  many 
birds  that  he  would  otherwise  lose. 

To  be  in  readiness  at  all  times,  the  gun  should  be  car- 
ried in  the  hollow  of  the  left  arm,  with  the  muzzle  pointed 
backwards,  or  with  the  stock  under  the  right  arm,  with  the 
muzzle  pointed  towards  the  ground,  which  is  undoubtedly 
the  safest  way,  especially  if  you  are  hunting  with  a  com- 
panion. Too  much  caution  cannot  be  used  in  handling  a 
loaded  gun,  especially  by  a  professional  collector,  who  may 
spend  two  thirds  of  his  time  with  a  gun  in  his  hand.  A 
gun  should  never  be  carried  in  other  than  three  ways.  — 
the  two  above  mentioned  and  directly  over  the  shoulder. 
If  the  collector  becomes  accustomed  to  these  ways,  which 
are  all  perfectly  safe,  he  will  never  think  of  any  other. 
Surely,  this  caution  is  necessary  to  one  who  is  travelling 
through  all  sorts  of  places,  when  a  slip  or  a  fall  with  a  care- 
lessly held  gun  might  cripple  him  for  life,  by  an  accidental 
discharge. 

While  passing  through  thick  bushes,  ahvays  carry  the 
gun  under  the  arm,  as  this  prevents  its  accidental  dis- 


-•'-  CAL. 

THE  ART   OF   COLLECTING  BIRDS.  9 

charge  by  the  bushes  catching  the  trigger  or  hammer. 
Never  allow  the  muzzle  of  the  gun  to  point  at  any  one, 
even  for  an  instant.  All  these  things  depend  upon  habit, 
and  will  cause  a  thoughtful  man,  who  has  handled  a  gun  for 
a  long  time,  to  be  much  more  careful  than  a  person  who 
seldom  takes  one  in  his  hands.  The  thoughtful  man 
prefers  rather  to  avoid  accidents  to  himself  and  others — 
by  care  in  advance  —  than  to  risk  the  chance  of  having  to 
mourn  his  carelessness  afterwai'ds.  The  various  devices  for 
snaring  birds  are  undoubtedly  the  best  ways  to  secure  them 
without  injuring  their  plumage.  But  the  collector  will 
have  to  rely  mainly  upon  his  gun ;  and  by  following  the 
above  instruction  regarding  the  light  charges,  he  will  find 
that  he  will  generally  kill  a  bird  without  injuring  its 
plumage  seriously.  If  he  carefully  attends  to  it  afterward 
in  the  way  described,  he  will  save  himself  much  trouble 
when  he  wishes  to  preserve  it. 

In  an  old  French  cook-book  may  be  found  a  receipt  for  a 
rabbit-stew,  commencing  with,  "  First,  catch  your  rabbit," 
etc., — which  rule  is  applicable  to  the  collector.  First,  study 
with  attention  the  art  of  collecting.  Many  and  long  have 
been  the  lessons  in  collecting  that  I  have  taken  in  long  tramps 
through  sunshine  and  storm,  in  the  bracing  air  among  the 
mountains  of  Northern  Maine  and  New  Hampshire,  on 
sandy  islands  and  rocky  shores,  amid  the  luxuriant  forests 
and  along  the  rivers  and  lagoons  of  semi-tropical  Florida. 
Hours  of  danger  and  perplexity  have  been  mingled  with 
days  of  inexpressible  pleasure,  which  all  must  experience 
who  study  from  the  Great  Book  of  Nature.  Not  easily, 
then,  I  may  add,  have  I  learned  what  I  am  trying  to  im- 
part to  others  in  these  pages. 

Since  writing  the  preceding,  I  have  been  informed  by 
my  friend,  Mr.  W.  Brewster,  of  Cambridge,  that  in  collect- 
ing such  small  birds  as  the  Warblers,  Sparrows,  Wrens,  etc., 
he  has  used  a  "blow-gun"  to  great  advantage,  constructed 


10  THE   NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

somewhat  after  the  pattern  of  the  celebrated  instrument 
that  is  used  by  the  natives  of  some  portions  of  South 
America  to  shoot  poisoned  arrows.  His  "gun"  is  made 
of  pine-wood,  and  is  about  four  feet  and  a  half  long ;  it  is 
bored  smoothly  the  whole  length  with  a  quarter-inch  hole. 
For  ammunition  Mr.  Brewster  uses  balls  made  of  soft 
putty.  These,  blown  at  birds,  will  hit  them  hard  enough 
to  kill,  if  the  gun  be  aimed  rightly,  which  art  can  be 
acquired  by  practice.  This  is  certainly  the  preferable  way 
to  collect  small  birds,  as  it  does  the  plumage  no  harm.  I 
would  suggest,  however,  that  a  tube  of  thin  brass  be  used 
in  place  of  wood ;  if  it  were  longer,  say  six  feet,  it  would  carry 
with  greater  force  and  more  accuracy.  Glass  would  be  still 
better,  if  it  could  be  supported  by  wood  to  prevent  break- 
age, as  it  would  be  much  smoother.  The  balls  of  putty 
should  be  made  to  fit  moderately  tight.  I  have  never 
tried  this  method  myself,  but  Mr.  Brewster  has,  in  a  satis- 
factory manner,  as  described  above.  I  only  wait  an  oppor- 
tunity to  test  them  myself,  and  trust  that  others  will  do 
the  same. 

SECTION  II.  How  to  prepare  Specimens.  Instruments, 
Materials,  etc.*  —  The  instruments  needed  in  preserving 
birds  and  mammals  are  :  a  pair  of  common  pliers,  Plate  I. 
Fig.  1 ;  a  pair  of  cutting  pliers,  Fig.  2  ;  a  pair  of  tweezers, 
Fig.  3;  a  scalpel,  Fig.  4;  two  brushes, — one  soft,  the  other 
stiff;  a  flat  file,  and  needles  and  thread. 

The  materials  needed  are  :  wire  of  annealed  iron  of  sizes 
between  26  and  10,  also  .some  very  fine  copper  wire; 
common  thread,  coarse  and  fine,  also  some  very  fine,  soft 
thread  from  the  cotton-factories,  —  this  is  wound  on  what 
are  called  "bobbins";  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
cloth, — cotton  tow  or  hemp,  and  fine  grass ;  for  the  latter 
the  long  tough  kind  that  grows  in  the  woods  is  the  best. 

*  All  the  instruments  and  the  wire  may  be  procured  at  the  hardware 
stores  in  the  cities  or  larger  towns. 


MATERIALS,   ETC. 


11 


Plate  I. 


12  THE  NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

Arsenic  is  the  best  substance  that  can  be  used  in  preserv- 
ing skins,  and  the  only  one  necessary.  Other  preparations 
are  no  better,  and  often  much  ivorse.  Strange  as  it  may  ap- 
pear to  some,  I  would  say  avoid  especially  all  the  so-called 
arsenical  soaps;  they  are  at  best  but  filthy  preparations ; 
beside,  it  is  a  fact  to  which  I  can  bear  painful  testimony, 
that  they  are.  —  especially  when  applied  to  a  greasy 'skin — 
poisonous  in  the  extreme.  I  have  been  so  badly  poisoned, 
while  working  upon  the  skins  of  some  fat  water-birds  that 
had  been  preserved  with  arsenical  soap,  as  to  be  made 
seriously  ill,  the  poison  having  worked  into  the  system, 
through  some  small  wounds  or  scratches  on  my  hands. 
Had  pure  arsenic  been  used  in  preparing  the  skins  the 
effect  would  not  have  been  as  bad,  although  grease  and 
arsenic  are  generally  a  blood  poison  in  some  degree ;  but 
when  combined  with  "soap,"  the  effect  —  at  least,  as  far  as 
my  experience  goes — is  much  more  injurious. 

Arsenic  alone  will  sometimes  poison  slightly  the  wound 
with  which  it  comes  in  contact,  but  no  more  than  com- 
mon salt.  There  will  be  a  slight  festering  and  nothing 
more ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  when  combined  with  fat,  a 
poison  is  generated  that  must  be  carefully  guarded  against. 
It  sometimes  works  under  the  nails  of  the  fingers  and 
thumbs,  while  one  is  at  work  skinning  (especially  if  the 
birds  are  fat).  Rubber  cots  should  be  put  upon  the  fingers 
or  thumbs  the  instant  the  slightest  wound  is  detected, 
whereby  much  pain  may  be  avoided  at  a  small  cost.  The 
cots  alluded  to  can  be  procured  of  almost  any  druggist  for 
ten  cents  each. 

Arsenic,  however,  cannot  be  used  with  too  great  care, 
as  it  is  a  deadly  poison.  In  no  case  should  it  be  left  in 
the  way  of  children.  I  have  a  drawer,  wide,  long,  and 
shallow,  in  the  bench  at  which  I  work  upon  birds,  where 
my  arsenic  is  kept  safely,  and  it  is  always  accessible.  But 
there  is  probably  not  so  much  danger  attending  the  use 


MATERIALS,   ETC.  13 

of  pure  dry  arsenic  as  people  generally  suppose.  I  have 
been  told  repeatedly,  by  competent  physicians,  that  the 
small  quantity  taken,  either  by  inhalation  while  using  it, 
or  by  numerous  other  accidental  ways,  would  be  beneficial, 
rather  than  injurious;  but  be  that  as  it  may,  I  have  used 
dry  arsenic  constantly  for  ten  years,  and  have  not  yet,  I 
think,  experienced  any  injurious  effects  from  it.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  I  have,  of  course,  used  it  carefully. 
When  used  with  care,  in  the  ordinary  manner,  it  is  un- 
doubtedly the  safest  and  the  best  material  that  can  be 
used  in  preparing  skins  for  the  cabinet.  I  have  never  yet 
had  a  skin  decay,  or  attacked  by  moths,  that  was  well  pre- 
served by  the  use  of  arsenic.  Arsenic  is  very  cheap,  vary- 
ing from  five  to  ten  cents  per  pound  by  the  wholesale,  and 
retailed  at  twenty-five  cents  by  druggists,  but  when  bought 
by  the  ounce  the  price  is  enormous. 

There  is,  however,  another  poison  to  which  one  is  exposed 
while  skinning  animals,  which  cannot  be  too  carefully 
guarded  against,  for  it  is  much  more  injurious  in  its  effects 
than  fat  acd  arsenic.  I  speak  of  the  animal  poison  that 
results  from  the  first  stage  of  decomposition.  If  on  a  warm 
day  one  skins  birds  from  which  an  offensive  odor  arises, 
and  a  peculiar  livid  or  purplish  appearance  of  the  skin 
upon  the  abdomen  is  seen,  and  the  intestines  are  distended 
with  an  extremely  poisonous  gas,  —  which  is  the  source 
of  the  offensive,  sickening  odor,  —  there  is  danger  of  be- 
ing poisoned.  When  this  gas  is  inhaled,  or  penetrates  the 
skin  through  the  pores  (which  are  generally  open  on  a 
warm  day),  a  powerful  and  highly  dangerous  poison  is  apt 
to  be  the  result. 

In  a  few  days  numerous  pimples,  which  are  exceedingly 
painful,  appear  upon  the  skin  of  the  face  and  other  parts 
of  the  person,  and  upon  those  parts  where  there  is  a  chaf- 
ing or  rubbing  become  large  and  deep  sores.  There  is  a 
general  languor,  and,  if  badly  poisoned,  complete  prostration 


14  THE   NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

results;  the  slightest  scratch  upon  the  skin  becomes  a  fes- 
tering sore.  Once  poisoned  in  this  manner  (and  I  speak 
from  experience),  one  is  never  afterwards  able  to  skin  any 
animal  that  has  become  in  the  least  putrid,  without  ex- 
periencing some  of  the  symptoms  above  described.  Even 
birds  that  you  handled  before  with  impunity,  you  cannot 
now  skin  without  great  care. 

The  best  remedv  in  this  case  is,  as  the  Hibernian  would 
say,  not  to  get  poisoned,  —  to  avoid  skinning  all  birds  that 
exhibit  the  slightest  signs  of  putrescence ;  this  is  especially 
to  be  guarded  against  hi  warm  weather,  and  in  hot  cli- 
mates, where  I  have  seen  a  single  hour's  work  upon  putrid 
birds  nearly  prove  fatal  to  the  careless  individual. 

If  you  get  poisoned,  bathe  the  parts  frequently  in  cold 
water;  and  if  chafed,  sprinkle  the  parts,  after  bathing, 
with  wheat  flour.  These  remedies,  if  persisted  in,  will  effect 
a  cure,  if  not  too  bad ;  then,  medical  advice  should  be  pro- 
cured without  delay. 

It  is  just  as  easy  to  skin  fresh  birds  as  putrid  ones, 
and  much  pleasanter,  and  in  this  way  the  evil  will  be 
avoided.  If  it  is  necessary  to  skin  a  putrid  bird,  —  as  in 
the  case  of  a  rare  specimen,  —  a  good  bath  of  the  hands 
and  face  in  clear,  cold  water  will  entirely  prevent  the 
poison  from  taking  effect,  provided  the  skinning  is  not 
protracted  too  long.  But  generally,  if  the  bird  is  putrid, 
I  would  advise  the  collector  to  throw  it  away,  and  obtain 
others  that  are  safer  to  skin. 

If  birds  and  mammals  are  injected,  by  means  of  a  small 
glass  syringe,  with  a  small  quantity  of  carbolic  acid  at  the 
mouth  and  vent,  it  will  prevent  decomposition  from  taking 
place  immediately.  After  injecting,  the  rnouth  and  vent 
should  be  plugged  to  prevent  the  acid  from  staining  the 
feathers.  Birds  injected  in  this  way  for  three  successive 
days  will  continue  fresh  for  a  long  time,  and,  if  kept  in  a 
dry  place,  will  harden  completely  without  decomposing. 


MATERIALS,   ETC.  15 

They  may  afterwards  be  skinned,  as  will  be  described  here- 
after. Impure  carbolic  acid  will  answer  as  well  as  the 
refined,  and  it  is  much  cheaper. 

The  cost  of  this  acid  is  trifling,  and  it  will  often  prove 
beneficial  in  preserving  birds  in  warm  weather  when  they 
cannot  be  skinned  immediately.  But  I  would  not  advise 
its  use  in  preserving  birds  when  it  can  possibly  be  avoided, 
as  it  dulls  the  plumage,  and  is  offensive  in  its  odor  in  con- 
nection with  the  juices  of  the  birds  while  they  are  being 
skinned.  It  is,  perhaps,  needless  to  add  that  this  acid 
is  a  dangerous  internal  poison ;  it  also  burns  the  skin 
badly  -when  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  it,  but  all 
injurious  effects  may  be  removed  by  applying  oil  to  the 
spot. 

As  a  collector  walks  much,  he  must  have  something  on 
his  feet  that  is  easy  and  at  the  same  time  serviceable.  I 
have  found  that  in  stony  countries  like  New  England  the 
best  things  are  canvas  shoes  that  lace  up  in  front,  tightly 
about  the  ankles  and  over  the  instep,  to  prevent  slipping  up 
and  down,  which  is  the  worst  possible  thing  that  could 
happen  while  on  a  long  tramp  ;  the  soles  should  be  broad, 
so  that  the  toes  may  have  room  enough  without  crowding. 
With  such  shoes  I  have  found  that  I  could  walk  farther 
than  with  anything  else,  and  be  less  wearied  in  the  end. 
If  the  feet  are  wet  from  walking  in  water,  with  canvas 
shoes  on  them  they  will  soon  dry,  as  the  water  will  all  run 
out  upon  walking  a  short  time  on  dry  ground.  Anything 
that  is  water-proof  will  be  much  too  heavy  to  travel  in, 
besides  being  injurious  to  the  feet. 

In  sand\t  localities,  or  on  marshes,  or  in  winter  when  the 
snow  covers  the  ground,  Indian  inoccasons  are  the  easiest 
and  best  things  that  can  possibly  be  worn ;  but  in  stony 
places  they  are  not  of  sufficient  thickness  to  protect  the 
foot  from  receiving  injury  from  the  hard  surface,  otter- 
wise  they  are  exceedingly  easy.  They  are  not  water-proof^ 


16  THE   NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

so  that  unless  the  snow  is  frozen  in  winter  they  are  of  no 
use.  These  moccasons  can  be  procured  almost  anywhere 
in  Maine  and  New  Hampshire,  and  sometimes  in  Boston. 
They  are  manufactured  mostly  in  Canada.  For  clothes, 
perhaps  the  best  that  can  be  worn  in  summer  is  a  suit 
of  fine  canvas  of  some  dark  color,  to  correspond  with  the 
foliage ;  in  winter,  white,  to  correspond  with  the  snow ; 
in  both  cases  the  wearer  is  less  conspicuous,  and  can  ap- 
proach his  game  much  more  readily.  This  cloth  will  not 
wear  out  or  tear  easily,  and  is  every  way  fitted  for  travel- 
ling in  the  woods. 

I  would  next  call  attention  to  making  stands  on  which 
to  put  birds  after  they  have  been  mounted,  as  one  of  the 
necessities  of  the  cabinet.  Simple  stands  in  the  form  of 
the  letter  T  (Plate  VIII.  Fig.  3,  f)  are  generally  wanted. 
Any  carpenter  can  make  them.  Different  sizes  will  be 
needed,  from  one  with  the  standard  two  inches  high  with  a 
cross-piece  one  inch  long,  to  a  foot  standard  with  a  six-inch 
cross-piece,  with  bottoms  to  match.  If  made  of  pine,  these 
stands  may  be  painted  white,  of  a  very  pure  unchanging 
color,  in  the  following  manner.  Buy  white  zinc  at  thirty 
cents  per  pound,  and  nice  frozen  glue  at  from  twenty-five 
to  thirty  cents  per  pound ;  dissolve  the  glue  thoroughly  in 
hot  water,  then  strain ;  to  a  pint  and  a  half  of  water  use  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  of  glue,  to  this  add  one  pound  of  zinc, 
stir  well,  with  the  vessel  that  contains  it  in  boiling  water, 
then,  with  a  brush,  apply  to  the  stands ;  put  on  two  coats. 
If  the  paint  has  a  yellowish  cast,  put  in  a  few  drops  of 
bluing;  it  will  change  it  at  once.  Thus  you  will  find 
that  you  have  a  nice  white  coat  of  paint  that  will  remain 
unchanged  longer  than  oil  colors.  Any  other  color  can  be 
used,  if  preferred,  in  the  same  manner. 

Fancy  stands  are  made  in  the  following  way.  For  mossy 
stands,  select  a  wooden  bottom  of  suitable  shape  and  size, — 
those  with  the  edges  bevelled  are  generally  used, — and 


MATERIALS,   ETC.  17 

with  the  pliers  force  a  piece  of  wire  into  it  in  the  centre, 
then  bend  the  wire  in  imitation  of  a  branch  or  small  tree, 
then  wind  it  with  hemp  to  give  it  the  required  shape ; 
additional  wires  may  be  fastened  on  to  represent  the  smaller 
twigs. 

The  whole  is  now  to  be  covered  with  a  coating  of  glue, 
and  sprinkled  with  pulverized  moss,  or  small  pieces  of 
moss  are  placed  upon  it  smoothly.  If  the  work  is  per- 
formed neatly,  a  perfect  imitation  of  a  little  tree  will  be  the 
result,  upon  which  the  bird  is  placed.  If  artificial  leaves 
are  to  be  used,  they  may  be  placed  upon  the  twigs  with 
glue. 

If,  instead  of  a  wire,  a  twig  bent  in  the  required  form 
can  be  procured,  and  fastened  to  the  bottom  with  wire, 
it  may  be  covered  with  moss  without  winding  with  hemp. 
The  fancy  stands  seen  with  dealers  in  birds  are  generally 
made  of  a  substance  called  papier-mache,  that  is,  manu- 
factured of  paper  pulp  and  glue  as  follows :  Tear  paper 
in  small  pieces  and  place  it  in  water,  let  it  stand  over- 
night. Then,  as  it  will  be  entirely  soaked,  reduce  it -to 
a  perfect  pulp,  either  by  forcing  it  through  a  sieve  01*  by 
stirring  it.  When  reduced  to  a  pulp,  drain  the  water 
away.  Dissolve  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  glue  in  a  pint  of 
water ;  mix  with  this  a  pint  of  pulp,  heat  it,  and  stir  it 
well ;  then  it  is  ready  for  use.  Prepare  a  stand  as  de- 
scribed. Mould  the  pulp  upon  it  in  any  shape  to  suit 
The  fancy.  It  should  have  the  consistency  of  putty,  in 
order  to  work  well.  If  it  is  too  thin,  put  in  more  of  the 
pulp  -.  if  too  dry,  more  water. 

With  this  substance  you  can  imitate  almost  anything  in 
the  shape  of  miniature  trees,  with  hollows,  knots,  crooked 
limbs,  etc.  By  drawing  over  the  whole,  when  finished,  a 
comb,  the  bark  of  a  tree  can  be  imitated  exactly.  When 
perfectly  dry,  the  limbs  of  the  tree  can  be  painted  brown 
in  the  manner  described.  The  bottom  of  the  stand  is 


18  THE  NATURALIST'S    GUIDE. 

painted  green,  and  sprinkled  with  a  substance  resembling 
green  sand,  called  "smolt,"  which  may  be  procured  at 
the  painter's  ;  over  this  is  sometimes  sprinkled  thin  glass, 
broken  fine,  which  is  called  "  frosting,"  and  is  also  used  by 
painters. 

Eocks  can  be  imitated  well  with  papier-mache.  If  stud- 
ded with  small  pieces  of  quartz  the  effect  is  heightened; 
they  then  may  be  painted  in  imitation  of  granite,  sand- 
stone, etc.  The  sandstone  is  easily  imitated  by  sprinkling 
on  sand  before  the  pulp  is  dry.  There  are  many  other 
things  that  may  be  imitated  with  this  wonderful  substance, 
but,  having  given  the  preceding  hints,  I  leave  the  reader  to 
experiment  at  his  leisure  upon  them. 

For  the  scientific  cabinet  I  would  advise  the  use  of 
the  plain  white  stands  as  being  much  neater.  The  others 
are  only  fit  for  ornament. 

One  other  thing  is  necessary.  Take  a  thin  board,  and 
at  intervals  of  two  inches  tack  transversely  strips  of  wood 
(Plate  IV.  Fig.  1);  then  cut  a  strip  of  paper  as  wide  as 
the  board,  and  with  glue  make  it  adhere  at  the  top  of  the 
strips  and  at  the  middle  of  the  intervening  space,  so  as  to 
form  a  corrugated  appearance  (Fig.  2).  These  are  used  in 
drying  skins  of  birds.  Each  board  should  have  a-bout 
twelve  such  spaces,  varying  in  width  from  two  to  four 
inches,  the  boards  varying  in  width  from  four  inches  to 
one  foot.  These  boards,  with  careful  use,  will  last  a  long 
time. 

SECTION.  III.  Measuring,  Skinning,  and  Preserving  Birds. 
—  For  measuring,  a  pair  of  dividers,  or  compasses,  a  steel 
rule,  divided  into  hundredths  of  an  inch,  and  a  longer 
rule,  divided  into  inches  and  half-inches,  will  be  wanted. 
To  measure  the  bird,  proceed  as  follows  :  Place  the  bird 
upon  its  back  upon  the  longer  rule,  with  the  end  of  the 
tail  at  the  end  of  the  rule;  the  neck  is  stretched  at  full 
length,  without  straining ;  the  bill  must  be  pointed  with 


THE   ART   OF   PRESERVING   BIRDS.  19 


.  2 


Plate  H. 


20  THE   NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

the  rule.  Record  the  number  of  inches  upon  a  strip  of 
paper ;  if  there  is  a  fractional  part  of  an  inch,  measure  it 
with  the  dividers,  and  find  how  many  hundredths  it  con- 
tains upon  the  smaller  rule,  and  record  it.  This  is  "the 
length  of  the  bird." 

Stretch  the  wings  out  to  the  full  length,  with  the  bird 
still  upon  its  back;  measure  these  from  tip  to  tip  as  "the 
stretch  of  wing."  Measure  the  wing  from  the  tip  to  the 
carpel  joint,  or  bend,  with  the  dividers  (Plate  X.  d),  for  "the 
length  of  the  wing."  The  tail  is  to  be  measured  —  also 
with  the  dividers  —  from  the  tip  to  the  root  for  "the 
length  of  the  tail."  Measure  the  tarsus  (Plate  VII.  g)  as 
"the  length  of  the  tarsus."  Measure  the  bill,  from  the  tip 
of  the  upper  mandible  to  the  base  (if  the  base  is  not  well 
defined,  as  in  the  Ducks,  measure  to  the  feathers) ;  this  is 
"the  length  of  bill  along  the  culmen"  (Plate  III.  h). 
Measure  from  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible  to  the  gape 
(e)  for  "  the  length  from  gape " ;  also  from  the  tip  of 
the  lower  mandible  to  the  angle  of  the  gonys  (s)  for  "  the 
length  of  gonys "  (c).  In  the  Hawks,  measure  to  the 
cere. 

The  color  of  the  eyes,  feet,  and  bill  is  now  observed 
apd  recorded,  also  the  date  of  collection  and  the  locality  in 
which  the  bird  was  collected.  If  the  bird  is  in  worn  plu- 
mage, the  fact  should  be  recorded,  as  this  will  affect  the 
measurements ;  also  if  it  is  moulting  or  in  perfect  plu- 
mage. As  the  records  now  made  are  only  temporary,  signs 

may  be  used  to  save  time,  such  as  X would  denote  an 

adult  bird  in  perfect  plumage,  Y| would  denote  a 

young  bird  in  worn  plumage,  YY| 1  would  denote  a 

young  bird  not  a  year  old  and  moulting, — this  stage  in  the 
life  of  the  bird  is  called  tne  "young-of-the-year."  By 
using  some  such  signs  as  these  much  time  will  be  saved. 
When  the  collector  becomes  expert  at  measuring,  he  will 
find  that  all  small  birds  can  be  measured  and  recorded  in 


THE  ABT    OF   FBESEBVING   BIRDS.  21 


THE   NATURALIST'S    GUIDE. 

about  three  minutes,  and  the  larger  ones  in  a  little  longer 
time. 

Skinning.  —  First,  have  plenty  of  plaster  near  at  hand. 
Kemove  the  cotton  from  the  mouth  and  vent,  and  place 
a  fresh  plug  in  the  mouth  alone.  The  method  now  about 
to  be  described  is  one  that  will  apply  to  all  birds,  excepting 
those  to  be  hereafter  named. 

Place  the  bird  upon  its  back;  with  the  forefinger  and 
thumb  part  the  feathers  on  the  abdomen,  and  a  bare  longi- 
tudinal space  will  be  discovered,  extending  from  the  breast 
to  the  vent.  With  the  scalpel  divide  the  skin  in  the 
centre  of  this  bare  space,  commencing  at  the  lower  part  of 
the  breast-bone,  or  sternum  (Plate  X.  o),  arid  ending  at  the 
vent.  Now  peel  the  skin  off  to  the  right  and  left,  and 
sprinkle  plaster  upon  the  exposed  abdomen.  Force  the 
leg  on  the  right  side  up  under  the  skin,  at  the  same  time 
drawing  the  skin  down  until  the  joint  (p)  appears ;  cut 
through  this  joint  and  draw  the  leg  out  as  far  as  the 
tarsus  or  first  joint  (k) ;  with  the  point  of  the  knife  sever 
the  tendons  on  the  lower  part  of  the  leg,  then  by  a  single 
scraping  motion  upwards  they  may  all  be  removed,  com- 
pletely baring  the  bone  ;  treat  the  other  leg  in  a  like  man- 
ner, leaving  both  turned  out  as  they  were  skinned.  Place 
the  finger  under  the  rump  near  the  tail,  then  with  the 
scalpel  cut  through  the  backbone  just  in  front  of  the  coc- 
cygus  (n)  entirely  through  the  flesh  to  the  skin,  —  the 
finger  beneath  is  a  guide  to  prevent  cutting  the  skin.  This 
may  be  done  very  quickly  after  long  practice,  and  there 
is  no  danger  of  severing  the  skin  if  proper  care  be  used. 
Put  on  a  fresh  supply  of  plaster.  Now  grasp  the  end  of 
the  backbone  firmly  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger, 
and  with  the  other  hand  pull  the  skin  down  on  all  sides 
towards  the  head,  until  the  joint  of  the  wing,  where  the 
last  bone,  or  humerus  (r),  is  joined  to  the  body,  appears ; 
sever  the  bones  at  this  joint,  and  draw  the  skin  down 


THE   ART   OF   PRESERVING   BIRDS.  23 

over  the  neck  and  head.  When  the  ears  appear,  with 
the  thumb-nail  remove  the  skin  that  adheres  closely  to 
the  skull  without  breaking  it,  pull  down  to  the  eyes,  then 
cut  the  skin  off  close  to  the  eyelids,  taking  care  not  to 
cut  or  injure  them;  but  be  sure  and  cut  close  enough  to 
remove  the  nictating  membrane,  as  it  will  otherwise  cause 
trouble.  Skin  well  down  to  the  base  of  the  bill.  Re- 
move the  eye  with  the  point  of  the  knife  by  thrusting 
it  down  at  the  side  between  the  eye  and  the  socket,  then 
with  a  motion  upward  it  can  be  removed  without  breaking ; 
cut  off  enough  of  the  back  part  of  the  skull  to  remove  the 
brains  easily.  Proceed  to  skin  the  wings ;  draw  them  out 
until  the  forearm  (Plate  X.  d)  appears,  to  which  the  sec- 
ondaries are  attached;  with  the  thumb-nail  detach  them 
by  pressing  downward  forcibly.  Remove  the  muscles  and 
tendons  —  as  explained  on  the  leg  —  to  the  joint,  where 
the  forearm  joins  the  humerus  (B),  then  divide,  removing 
the  humerus  entirely. 

Now  open  the  drawer  containing  the  arsenic,  and  with 
a  small  flat  piece  of  wood  cover  the  skin  completely  with 
it;  be  sure  that  the  cavities  from  which  the  brains  and 
eyes  were  removed  are  filled.  Take  up  the  skin  and 
shake  it  gently.  The  arsenic  that  remains  adhering  to  it 
is  sufficient  to  preserve  it,  provided  the  skin  is  damp 
enough ;  if  not,  it  may  be  moistened  slightly.  Now  fill  the 
eye-holes  *  with  cotton,  tie  the  wing-bones  with  thread,  as 
near  together  as  the  back  of  the  bird  was  broad,  then 
turn  the  skin  back  into  its  former  position.  Smooth  the 
feathers  of  the  head  and  wings  with  the  fingers.  With  a 
few  strokes  of  the  feather  duster,  holding  the  skin  up  by 
the  bill,  remove  the  plaster  and  arsenic  that  may  be  ad- 
hering to  the  feathers. 

If  there  is  blood  upon  the  feathers,  it  may  be  removed 
—  if  there  is  not  much  of  it,  and  if  it  is  dry  —  with  the 
*  By  which  I  mean  the  holes  occupied  by  the  eyes  in  the  skull 


24  THE  NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

stiff  brush  by  continuous  brushing,  assisted  by  scraping 
with  the  thumb-nail.  A  living  bird  cleans  blood  from  its 
plumage  by  drawing  each  feather  separately  through  its 
beak,  thereby  scraping  off  the  blood ;  the  thumb-nail 
performs  the  part  of  the  bill.  If  much  bloody,  with  a  soft 
sponge  and  water  wash  away  all  traces  of  blood ;  then 
throw  plaster  upon  the  wet  spot,  and  remove  it  before  it 
has  time  to  harden  or  "  set."  By  repeating  this  opera- 
tion, at  the  same  time  lifting  the  feathers  so  as  to  allow 
the  plaster  to  dry  every  part,  and  by  using  the  soft  brush, 
the  feathers  will  soon  dry.  In  this  way  any  stains  may  be 
removed. 

If  the  plumage  is  greasy,  wash  it  with  warm  water  and 
strong  soap  long  enough  to  remove  every  particle  of  fatty 
matter  that  adheres  to  the  feathers ;  then  rinse  thoroughly 
in  warm  water,  afterwards  in  cold.  Be  sure  and  remove 
all  traces  of  the  soap  before  putting  on  the  plaster  to  dry, 
as  the  soap  will  be  changed  by  the  plaster  into  a  gummy 
substance,  which  will  be  very  difficult  to  remove. 

After  smoothing  the  feathers  carefully,  place  the  skin 
upon  its  back.  With  the  tweezers  take  up  a  small  roll 
of  hemp  or  cotton,  as  large  round  and  as  long  as  the  neck  of 
the  body  that  was  taken  out,  and  place  it  in  the  neck  of 
the  skin,  taking  care  that  the  throat  is  well  filled  out ;  then, 
by  grasping  the  neck  on  each  side  with  the  thumb  and 
finger,  the  hemp  or  cotton  may  be  held  in  place,  and  the 
tweezers  withdrawn.  After  placing  the  wings  in  the  same 
position  as  the  bird  would  have  them  when  at  rest,  with 
the  bones  of  the  forearm  pushed  well  into  the  skin,  —  so  that 
they  may  lie  down  each  side,  and  not  cross  each  other,  — 
with  a  needle  and  thread  sew  through  the  skin  and  the 
first  quill  of  the  primaries  by  pushing  the  needle  through 
the  skin  on  the  inside  and  through  the  quill  opposite,  but 
be  sure  that  the  wing  is  in  the  proper  place.  (If  it  is  too  far 
forward,  the  feathers  of  the  sides  of  the  breast,  that  ought  to 


THE   ART   OF   PRESERVING   BIRDS.  25 

lie  smoothly  over  the  bend  of  the  wing,  will  be  forced  up 
and  backward.  If  the  wing  is  placed  too  far  back,  there 
will  be  a  bare  spot  upon  the  side  of  the  neck,  —  caused  by 
the  wing-coverts,  which  help,  in  connection  with  the  feath- 
ers of  the  back,  to  hide  the  snot,  being  drawn  either 
down  or  back  too  far.  If  the  wing  is  placed  too  low,  the 
same  spot  is  seen,  only  it  is  elongated  and  extends  along 
the  back  between  the  secondaries  and  feathers  of  the  back ; 
if  too  high,,  the  feathers  of  the  back  will  appear  pushed  up, 
and  will  not  lie  smooth  for  obvious  reasons.  When  the 
wing  is  in  the  right  position,  the  feathers  of  the  wing- 
coverts  and  back  will  blend  nicely  and  smoothly,  and  the 
feathers  of  the  sides  of  the  breast  will  lie  smoothly  orer 
the  bend  of  the  wing ;  the  ends  of  the  closed  quills  will 
lie  flat  upon  the  tail,  or  nearly  so.)  Now  draw  the  thread 
through  so  that  but  an  inch  is  visible  inside  the  skin, 
then  push  the  needle  through  the  skin  from  the  outside 
just  below  the  quill  that  it  came  out  through,  draw  the 
thread  through,  and  tie  to  the  projecting  end,  thereby 
fastening  the  wing  firmly  to  the  side  ;  proceed  in  this  way 
with  the  other  wing. 

Roll  up  loosely  an  oblong  body  of  cotton  or  hemp  of 
the  same  size  as  the  body  taken  out,  place  it  in  the  skin 
neatly,  then  draw  the  edges  of  the  skin  together  where  the 
incision  was  made,  and  sew  them  once  in  the  centre  ;  tie 
the  ends  of  the  thread  together.  Take  care  to  put  the 
needle  through  the  edge  of  the  skin  so  as  not  to  disturb  the 
feathers.  Smooth  the  feathers  on  the  abdomen.  Cross 
the  feet  upon  the  tail  (Plate  IV.  Fig.  3),  —  which  is  spread 
slightly,  —  then  place  tne  SKin  upon  its  back  in  the 
rounded  places  of  the  drying-board,  spoken  of  on  page 
18  (Fig.  1,  d),  taking  care  that  the  feathers  of  the 
back  are  perfectly  smooth.  This  rounded  bed  gives  the 
back  a  natural  rounded  appearance,  which  cannot  be 
made  easily  in  any  other  way.  Place  tha  head  with  the 


THE  NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 


i.  2 


THE   ART    OF   PRESERVING   BIRDS.  27 

bill  horizontal  with  the  back  or  bottom  of  the  rounded 
space,  with  the  culmen  (Plate  TV.,  Fig.  1,  d)  nearly  touch- 
ing the  paper.  The  skin  must  remain  in  this  position 
without  being  disturbed  until  perfectly  dry,  which  in  very 
warm  weather,  with  small  birds,  will  be  in  about  twenty- 
four  hours. 

If  this  corrugated  board  cannot  be  procured,  the  skin 
may  be  placed  on  its  back  upon  a  flat  surface,  with  a 
little  cotton  on  each  side  of  it  to  prevent  its  getting  dis- 
placed. This  is  what  is  technically  termed  "a  skin" 
(Fig.  3),  and  this  method  of  making  them  is  the  best  I 
have  ever  seen  practised,  and  one  that  I  have  used  for 
years  as  being  the  most  expedient.  The  skins  so  made 
are  less  liable  to  injury,  being  stronger  than  some  others, 
and  are  also  very  easily  mounted.  I  have  made  in  a 
single  day,  in  the  manner  described,  fifty  skins,  and  with 
practice  almost  any  one  will  be  able  to  do  the  same ;  ten 
minutes  being  ample  time  for  each,  including  the  meas- 
iiring. 

Before  the  skin  is  placed  upon  the  board,  it  should  be 
labelled  (Fig.  3,  £)  with  a  number  corresponding  to  the 
one  placed  upon  the  slip  of  paper  containing  the  meas- 
urements, etc.,  marked  also  for  the  sex  of  the  bird,  which 
is  done  by  using  for  the  male  the  sign  of  the  planet 
Mars,  thus  $  ;  for  the  female  the  sign  of  the  planet 
Venus  is  used,  thus  ? .  These  signs  are  used  by  natural- 
ists throughout  the  scientific  world,  and  it  is  best  to  be- 
some  accustomed  to  them. 

Determining  the  Sex. — The  sex  of  the  bird  is  determined, 
lot  by  the  plumage,  which  will  sometimes  set  the  student 
vt  fault  by  its  changes,  and  should  never  be  trusted  in  de- 
termining the  sex,  but  by  dissection,  as  follows  :  Take  the 
body  of  the  bird  after  it  has  been  removed,  and  cut  with 
the  scalpel  through  the  ribs  (Plate  X.  A)  on  the  sides 
of  the  abdomen,  thereby  exposing  the  intestines;  raise 


28  THE   NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

these  gently  with  the  point  of  the  knife,  and  beneath  them 
•will  be  seen  the  sexual  organs,  which  are  fully  illustrated 
in  the  following  diagrams. 

PLATE  V.,  Fig.  2,  is  an  adult  male  (<J)  in  the  breeding 
season.  1  shows  the  position  of  the  lungs,  2  the  pecu- 
liar yellowish  glands,  —  in  some  birds  bright  yellow,  in  the 
present  case  —  that  of  a  song  sparrow  (Melospiza  melodia, 
Baird)  —  they  are  yellowish  white,  which,  being  present 
in  both  sexes,  if  not  examined  closely,  may  be  easily  mis- 
taken, in  the  young  female,  for  the  testicles  of  the  male. 
3,  3,  are  the  testicles,  much  enlarged  in  this,  the  breeding 
season.  The  sex  of  a  bird  in  this  stage  is  easily  deter- 
mined. 

PLATE  VI.,  Fig.  1,  is  a  young  male  (<J)  in  the  young- 
of-the-year  plumage.  The  figures  refer  to  the  same  parts 
as  explained  in  the  preceding.  It  will  be  perceived  that 
the  testicles  (3)  are  much  smaller.  At  different  seasons, 
the  testicles  vary  in  size  between  this  and  the  preceding. 
In  some  birds  they  are  elongated,  and  black  in  color, 
as  in  the  Herons ;  but  they  always  occupy  the  same  posi- 
tions so  nearly  as  to  be  readily  distinguished.  The  pecu- 
liar white  glands  (2)  are  in  this  instance  very  prominent, 
but  they  are  readily  known  in  all  birds  by  their  being  flat, 
while  the  testicles  are  always  spherical. 

PLATE  V.,  Fig.  1.  This  is  an  adult  female  (9)  in  the 
breeding  season.  1,  1,  are  the  same  peculiar  glands  observed 
in  the  males ;  2  is  the  ovary,  a  mass  of  spheres  at  this 
season  quite  yellow  and  prominent ;  3  is  the  oviduct,  or 
egg-passage,  much  enlarged  in  the  present  case,  as  it  always 
is  during  the  breeding  season,  when  it  assumes  a  thick, 
swollen  appearance,  while  at  other  times  it  is  translucent, 
much  smaller,  and  resembles  a  narrow,  whitish  line,  not 
readily  perceived. 

PLATE  VI. ,  Fig.  2,  is  a  young-of-the-year  female  in  au- 
tumn. 1, 1,  the  same  white  glands  that  at  this  stage  of  the 


THE  ART   OF   PRESERVING  BIRDS.  29 


Fig.  1 
Alult  I 


Plate  V. 


30 


THE  NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 


Eg.l 
Young  6 


Plate  VL 


THE   ART   OF   PRESERVING  BIRDS.  31 

bird's  life  might  at  first  sight  be  mistaken  for  the  testicles 
of  the  male,  but,  upon  looking  closely  the  ovary  (2)  can 
be  perceived,  very  small;  upon  applying  a  magnify  ing-glass 
it  appears  granular. 

With  these  remarks  and  diagrams,  I  think  any  one  with 
ordinary  ability  will,  with  a  little  practice,  be  able  to  de- 
termine this  very  important  character  in  the  scientific 
study  of  birds. 

Contents  of  Stomach,  etc.  —  The  contents  of  the  stomach 
must  next  be  examined,'  which  is  done  by  opening  the  giz- 
zard and  crop.  A  little  practice  will  enable  the  collector 
to  state  correctly  what  it  contains,  although  the  glass  is 
sometimes  necessary,  as  in  the  case  of  small  birds.  This 
is  then  recorded  upon  the  slip  of  paper,  which  is  put  on 
file,  to  be  copied  into  a  book,  in  the  following  manner, — 
leaving  a  page,  or,  if  the  book  is  not  wide  enough,  two 
pages,  for  each  species,  —  first  placing  the  scientific  name  at 
the  head,  as  seen  on  the  following  page. 

A  book  prepared  in  this  manner,  carefully  indexed  and 
paged,  will,  when  it  is  filled  with  the  measurements  of 
birds,  be  of  immense  value  for  comparative  measurements, 
besides  giving  the  collector  a  complete  history  of  each  of 
his  specimens. 

Exceptions  to  the  usual  Method  of  Skinning.  —  All  birds 
are  to  be  prepared  in  the  preceding  manner,  with  the  fol- 
lowing exceptions. 

All  Woodpeckers  with  a  large  head  and  small  neck  —  of 
which  the  Pileated  Woodpecker  (Hylotomus  pileatus,  Baird) 
is  an  example  —  should  be  skinned  in  the  same  manner  as 
far  as  the  neck,  which  should  be  severed,  as  it  is  impos- 
sible to  turn  the  skin  over  the  head ;  cut  through  the  skin 
on  the  back  of  the  head,  making  a  longitudinal  insertion 
of  an  inch  or  more,  and  draw  the  head  through  this.  It 
should  be  carefully  sewn  up  after  the  skin  is  turned  back. 
Such  specimens,  when  laid  out  to  dry,  should  have  the 


32 


THE   NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 


I 


aig  J° 


•ma  | 


•ira  | 


a?  ~     $ 


3  8 


S  S 


if     1 


THE  ART    OF   PRESERVING   BIRDS. 

head  so  placed  that  the  bill  is  turned  at  right  angles  with 
the  body,  with  the  head  resting  on  one  side,  and  not  on  the 
back  as  before. 

All  Ducks  with  large  heads  should  be  skinned  in  the 
same  way,  with  the  exception  that  the  insertion  must  be 
made  under  the  head,  on  the  throat.  Ducks,  Herons,  Geese, 
large  Sandpipers,  and  all  other  long-necked  birds,  should, 
when  placed  to  dry,  rest  upon  the  breast,  with  the  head 
and  neck  placed  upon  the  back,  and  the  head  turned  on 
one  side.  Herons  with  very  long  necks  should  have  them 
bent  once.  The  bill  must  be  placed  parallel  with  the  neck 
and  pointing  forward. 

While  travelling  it  is  not  always  convenient  to  fill  out 
the  bodies  of  large  birds ;  it  is  better  to  pack  them  flat, 
with  but  little  cotton  in  them,  — just  enough,  however,  to 
keep  the  opposite  parts  of  the  skin  from  coming  in  contact. 
The  neck  should  always  be  filled.  When  it  is  impossible 
to  procure  stuffing  for  small  birds,  they  may  be  packed  flat 
also. 

Birds  that  have  been  preserved  with  carbolic  acid,  even 
after  they  have  been  lying  for  years,  and  have  become 
perfectly  dry,  may  be  skinned  in  the  following  manner : 
Place  wet  cotton  or  hemp  under  the  wings,  in  the  throat, 
and  around  the  legs,  and  finally  envelop  the  whole  body 
in  a  thick  coating.  Place  it  in  a  close  box,  and  let  it 
remain  a  day  or  two  until  it  is  softened,  then  take  it  out 
and  remove  the  skin  as  before  directed;  but  more  care  will 
have  to  be  exercised  than  in  skinning  fresh  birds.  Alco- 
holic specimens  may  be  skinned;  but  the  wet  plumage  had 
better  be  dried  in  the  air  without  plaster.  Mr.  A.  L.  Bab- 
cock  has  a  number  of  mounted  birds  in  his  collection  at 
Sherborne,  Massachusetts,  that  were  preserved  in  alcohol, 
and  sent  from  South  America. 

The  beginner  will  find  that  some  birds,  such  as  the 
Cuckoos,  Pigeons,  and  Doves,  are  very  difficult  to  skin  over 


34  THE  NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

the  rump  without  loosening  the  feathers;  but  this  difficulty 
will  be  overcome  by  using  particular  care  while  skinning  the 
spot  that  is  tender.  Some  birds  also  have  tender  skin  on 
the  breast,  and  in  such  cases  it  almost  always  adheres  so 
closely  to  the  flesh  that  it  is  necessary  to  cut  it  away ; 
this  operation  is  somewhat  tedious,  but  it  is  better  than 
to  risk  tearing  the  skin  by  pulling  it.  An  example  of  this 
is  sometimes  seen  in  the  Wood  Duck. 

The  best  time  to  skin  a  bird  is  as  soon  as  it  is  shot, 
when  the  muscles  are  relaxed,  as  the  plumage  is  then  in 
the  best  condition.  In  a  short  time  the  muscles  become 
rigid,  when  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  remove  the  skin; 
but  the  muscles  soon  relax  again,  and  then  you  must  skin 
at  once,  as  this  is  the  first  stage  —  or  the  state  imme- 
diately preceding  the  first  stage  —  of  decomposition.  In 
very  warm  weather  this  rigidness  of  the  muscles  sel- 
dom occurs,  then  the  bird  rapidly  decomposes.  In  warm 
weather,  birds  should  be  kept  on  ice  until  wanted;  for  if 
a  bird  remains  only  an  hour  in  a  warm  room,  or  in  the 
sun,  it  will  sometimes  spoil,  especially  if  the  blow-flies 
are  allowed  access  to  it.  There  is  a  species  of  blow-fly 
that  is  viviparous  ;  I  have  seen  such  a  fly  alight  upon 
a  fresh  bird,  and,  after  introducing  her  ovipositor  into  the 
mouth  of  the  specimen,  exude  an  immense  number  of  liv- 
ing, though  minute,  maggots.  These  maggots  spread  over 
the  skin  in  all  directions,  moistening  it  with  their  slimy 
bodies,  and  soon  render  the  specimen  unfit  for  use  by 
loosening  the  feathers. 

It  is  difficult  to  remove  the  eggs  of  the  common  blow- 
fly when  they  are  once  placed  upon  the  feathers.  It  is 
much  better  to  prevent  the  flies  from  attacking  specimens 
—  which,  if  they  are  exposed  during  warm  weather,  they 
will  do  very  quickly  —  by  covering  them,  or  placing  them 
immediately  upon  ice. 

SECTION    IV.    Mounting   Specimens.  —  Almost   any  one 


THE   WAY   TO  MOUNT   BIEDS.  35 


Plate  VII. 


36  THE   NATURALIST'S    GUIDE. 

can  mount  a  bird,  after  receiving  proper  instruction  ;  but 
to  make  it  look  lifelike  and  natural  requires  constant  and 
unceasing  study  of  birds  in  their  native  haunts.  The  true 
art,  then,  can  only  be  acquired  by  the  earnest  student 
of  nature.  The  mere  taxidermist,  who  constantly  sits  at 
his  bench  and  works  on  birds  without  studying  from  na- 
ture, may  acquire  a  certain  degree  of  skill,  but  the  atti- 
tudes of  many  of  his  stuffed  birds  will  appear  awkward  and 
grotesque  to  the  naturalist. 

Therefore  I  say  to  those  who  would  learn  to  mount  birds 
in  natural  attitudes,  study  nature.  Have  all  attitudes  that 
every  bird  assumes  engraved  upon  the  brain,  to  be  repro- 
duced in  the  stuffed  specimens;  from  the  one  assumed 
by  the  delicate  Warbler,  that  hops  lightly  from  limb  to 
limb,  or  swings  gracefully  from  the  topmost  bough  of  some 
tall  oak,  to  that  of  the  mighty  Eagle  in  his  eager,  down- 
ward swoop  upon  his  trembling  prey.  Watch  the  scream- 
ing Gull  in  his  almost  innumerable  positions  upon  the  wing, 
the  nimble  Sandpiper  running  along  the  shore,  and  the 
gracefully  floating  Duck  upon  the  water.  After  watching 
these  in  their  various  natural  attitudes,  work ;  but  do  not 
cease  to  study  for  improvement,  for  the  work  of  man  is  yet 
far  from  being  perfect. 

In  mounting  birds,  skin  as  instructed  in  the  preceding 
section,  but  do  not  tie  the  wing-bones  together.  Having 
cleaned  and  dusted  the  feathers,  proceed  to  fill  the  neck  to 
the  natural  size,  without  stretching,  with  "  shorts,"  or  the 
bran  from  wheat  flour,  or  with  hemp  cut  fine.  Roll  up 
some  fine  grass  moderately  hard  in  the  shape  of  an  oblong 
body  (Plate  VIII.  Figs.  1,  2),  then  wind  it  smoothly  with 
thread.  This  body  should  be  of  the  same  proportionate 
size  as  the  one  taken  out,  although  not  exactly  of  the  same 
shape,  for  reasons  that  will  be  seen  when  the  bird  is 
mounted,  but  which  cannot  be  easily  explained.  Have  the 
body  perfectly  smooth,  and  the  curves  regular  dn  every  part. 


THE   WAY   TO   MOUNT   BIRDS.  37 

Place  the  body  inside  the  skin.  Now  cut  wires  of  the 
right  size  (that  is,  large  enough  to  support  the  bird  when 
mounted ;  which  can  be  learned  by  experience,  although  I 
would  advise  putting  in  as  large  wires  as  can  be  used  with- 
out splitting  the  skin  of  the  tarsi)  and  proper  length  for  the 
wiring  of  the  following  parts  :  to  go  through  the  legs,  for 
the  neck,  and  for  the  tail.  Straighten  the  wires  by  rolling 
them  on  the  bench  with  a  file,  then  sharpen  them  by  hold- 
ing the  end  obliquely  against  the  edge  of  the  bench  and 
filing  from  you,  at  the  same  time  twisting  the  wire ;  force 
the  wire  cut  for  the  leg  up  through  the  sole  of  the  foot, 
through  the  tarsus,  along  the  leg-bone  into  the  centre  of 
the  side  of  the  grass  body  (Plate  VIII.  Fig.  1,  a),  through 
this  so  that  the  end  will  protrude  for  an  inch ;  bend  the 
end  down  in  the  form  of  an  L  (Fig.  1,  b),  and  again  force 
it  into  the  body  (Fig.  1,  c),  thereby  clinching  it  so  that  it 
can  have  no  motion  whatever.  The  wire  should  protrude 
out  of  the  sole  at  least  two  inches  (Fig.  1,  d). 

Proceed  in  the  same  manner  with  the  other  leg  ;  if  this 
seems  difficult  at  first,  practice  will  soon  overcome  the 
difficulty.  Be  sure  and  clinch  the  wires  firmly,  as  they 
will  otherwise  cause  trouble.  Force  the  wire  cut  for  the 
head  down  through  the  skull  near  the  base  of  the  bill 
(Fig.  3,  g)  through  the  neck,  —  but  it  must  not  come  out 
through  the  skin  anywhere,  —  through  the  body  (Fig.  1,  e), 
out  the  other  side,  where  it  is  clinched  as  before  (Fig.  1,  c). 
Force  the  wire  cut  for  the  tail  through  the  bone  left  in 
the  tail,  and  under  the  tail,  into  the  body  (Fig.  1,  f); 
clinch  as  usual  (Fig.  3,  g).  Bend  the  wire  —  which  should 
protrude  about  two  inches  beyond  the  end  of  the  tail  — 
into  the  form  of  a  T  (Fig.  1,  h) ;  the  cross-piece  is  placed 
about  half  the  length  of  the  tail ;  on  this  the  tail  rests. 
Pin  up  the  incision  by  drawing  the  edges  of  the  skin 
together  and  forcing  pins  through  them  into  the  body; 
then  smooth  the  feathers  over  the  place. 


38 


THE   NATURALIST'S    GUIDE. 


Plate  VIIL 


THE   WAY   TO   MOUNT    BIRDS.  39 

Fasten  the  bird  upon  the  stand  by  passing  the  wires  of 
the  feet  through  the  holes  in  the  cross-piece  (Plate  VIII.  Fig. 
3,  h),  then  twist  the  ends  of  the  wire  around  the  ends  of  the 
cross-piece  (Fig.  3,  s)  to  fasten  it  firmly.  Place  the  bird  in 
position  with  the  tarsi  inclining  backward  (Fig.  3,  i),  so  that 
a  line  dropped  from  the  back  of  the  head,  passing  through 
the  body,  would  pass  down  the  centre  of  the  stand  (Fig.  3,  a,  a). 
This  is  a  natural  rule,  and  one  that  applies  to  all  perch- 
ing birds.  Next  arrange  the  wings  in  position  by  applying 
the  same  rules  that  were  given  when  making  a  skin ;  in 
this  case,  however,  the  following  additional  rule  may  be  of 
use.  The  end  of  the  bone  of  the  forearm  should  reach  just 
half  the  length  and  width  of  the  body  where  it  meets  the 
lower  end  of  the  thigh  (see  Plate  X.  B).  Having  arranged 
the  wing,  pin  it  near  the  bend  to  the  body  (Plate  VIII. 
Fig.  3,  b),  also  through  the  first  primary  quill  (Fig.  3,  c). 
The  wings  should  in  some  cases  be  placed  at  a  little  dis- 
tance from  the  body,  as  is  natural  with  the  Thrushes,  and 
some  other  species.  This  may  be  done  by  lengthening  the 
second  wire  (Fig.  3,  c).  Put  the  head  in  the  proper  posi- 
tion, cut  off  the  protruding  wire  (Fig.  3,  g).  Plait  the  tail- 
feathers  by  placing  the  inner  web  over  the  outer  (Fig.  3,  d); 
then  place  a  piece  of  fine  copper  wire  across  the  tail,  and 
fasten  it  to  the  ends  of  the  cross-piece  (Fig.  3,  e).  Fix 
the  artificial  eyes  in  their  proper  position  with  glue  or 
putty ;  then  wind  the  bird  with  the  fine  cotton  on  the 
breast  and  shoulders  and  over  the  secondaries  (Fig.  3,  k); 
this  is  to  keep  the  feathers  smooth  while  it  is  drying. 

To  mount  a  bird  with  the  wings  extended,  proceed  as 
before  explained,  but  raise  the  wings,  and  use  longer  wires 
to  pin  them  in  position.  Then,  to  hold  the  quills  and  sec- 
ondaries in  place,  bend  a  wire  over  the  whole  width  of  the 
wing,  passing  on  each  side  of  them.  In  skinning  and 
mounting  Ducks,  open  under  the  wing.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  making  an  incision  on  the  side,  from  the  place 


40  THE  NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

where  the  humerus  joins  the  sternum  (Plate  X.  B)  to  just 
beyond  the  lower  joint  of  the  thigh  (p),  after  which  skin  as 
before. 

If  any  feathers  become  twisted  or  bent,  they  may  be 
instantly  straightened  by  holding  them  in  steam.  If  the 
feathers  are  to  be  smoothed,  raise  them  with  the  fingers  or 
tweezers,  and  let  them  fall  back  in  place ;  they  will  gene- 
rally come  down  smoothly.  If  the  feathers  come  out,  put  a 
drop  of  glue  upon  the  end  of  each,  and  place  it  in  the 
proper  position ;  it  will  stay,  when  dry.  In  this  way  large 
bare  places  may  be  covered. 

Mounting  dried  Skins.  —  To  mount  dried  skins,  remove 
the  stuffing  with  which  they  are  filled,  and  supply  its  place 
with  dampened  cotton,  also  wrap  the  legs  well  with  it ; 
place  the  skin  in  a  box,  where  it  must  remain  until  it 
becomes  pliable,  but  not  too  soft,  as  it  is  then  liable  to  drop 
in  pieces.  It  is  to  be  mounted  as  described,  excepting  that 
the  neck  is  filled  with  cut  hemp  instead  of  bran.  Birds 
mounted  from  dried  skins  require  more  care  in  mounting, 
and  more  binding  to  bring  the  feathers  into  proper  posi- 
tion, than  fresh  birds. 

Never  paint  or  varnish  the  feet  or  bill  of  a  bird ;  the 
scales  on  the  feet  of  birds  are  one  of  the  most  interesting 
characters  in  the  study  of  ornithology,  and  they  cannot 
readily  be  seen  when  covered  with  paint  or  varnish.  In 
mounting  birds  larger  than  a  Robin,  the  muscles  of  the  leg- 
bone  must  be  supplied  by  winding  the  tibia  with  hemp 
until  the  original  size  and  shape  is  attained.  Particular 
attention  must  be  paid  to  the  legs  of  the  Waders  and  rapa- 
cious birds.  The  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  all  swimming 
birds ;  as  the  tibia  is  buried  in  the  body,  it  does  not  need 
winding. 

In  mounting  Humming-Birds  with  the  wings  extended, 
especially  from  dried  skins,  there  is  no  need  of  wiring  the 
leg.  Place  a  single  wire  in  the  back  part  of  the  body,  with 


THE   WAY   TO   MOUNT   BIRDS.  41 

the  point  firmly  clinched,  and  the  end  protruding  back 
from  the  abdomen  for  three  or  four  inches.  This  wire  will 
sustain  the  bird.  Always  wire  the  feet  in  the  usual  way 
if  the  bird  is  to  be  mounted  in  the  attitude  of  rest.  In 
mounting  other  small  birds,  this  method  of  wiring  will  an- 
swer when  the  bird  is  represented  as  flying.  Large  birds, 
when  mounted  in,the  attitude  of  flying,  should  be  wired 
in  the  usual  manner,  with  the  wires  that  extend  beyond 
the  soles  of  the  feet  cut  short ;  then  a  wire  is  forced  down 
through  the  back  and  clinched  under  the  body,  with  the 
end  pointing  upward ;  cut  off  this  end  so  that  it  will  pro- 
trude but  a  half-inch  beyond  the  skin,  then  bend  it  under 
the  feathers  into  the  form  of  a  hook  or  ring ;  to  this  fasten 
a  thread,  and  suspend  the  bird.  To  make  the  bird  incline 
downward,  place  the  wire  well  back;  upward,  farther  for- 
ward, or  nearer  the  head.  Fine  copper  wire  will  answer 
to  suspend  large  birds  in  this  manner.  In  mounting  a 
bird  in  this  position,  with  the  wings  fully  extended,  care 
should  be  taken  that  they  are  properly  arched. 

While  arranging  the  wings,  it  is  not  convenient  to  keep 
the  bird  suspended,  as  it  will  not  be  sufficiently  firm. 
Sharpen  two  stout  wires  and  fasten  them  at  both  ends 
(Plate  VIII.  Fig.  4,  b,  b),  perpendicularly  in  a  block  of 
wood  (a),  parallel  to  each  other,  and  about  two  inches 
apart.  These  wires  should  be  at  least  four  inches  long. 
Bend  about  an  inch  and  a  half  of  the  ends  down,  parallel 
with  the  block  (c).  Force  these  ends  into  the  abdomen  of 
the  bird  that  is  being  mounted,  and  it  will  be  firmly  held 
in  place  while  the  different  parts  are  being  arranged,  after 
which  it  can  be  suspended  as  described. 

Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  mount  the  skins  of  rare 
birds  when  they  are  badly  decayed.  To  mount  skins  in 
this  condition  requires  skill  and  patience,  as  well  as  a  knowl' 
edge  of  their  different  parts.  The  manner  in  which  I  hav<* 
mounted  them  is  this  :  First,  moisten  the  skin  as  de 


42  THE  NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

scribed,  then  make  a  body,  as  before,  and  place  a  wire  of 
the  proper  size  and  length  in  the  usual  place  for  the  neck, 
and  wind  it  with  hemp  to  the  natural  size ;  place  the  head, 
wings,  feet,  and  tail  in  the  proper  position;  then,  after 
spreading  glue  upon  the  body,  place  each  feather  or  piece 
of  skin  carefully  in  its  proper  place,  commencing  at  the 
tail  and  working  towards  the  head ;  when  this  is  finished, 
bind  the  bird  as  usual. 

Birds  that  have  been  mounted  require  at  least  ten  days 
for  the  skin  to  dry  before  the  thread  is  removed,  which  is 
done  by  cutting  down  the  back  with  scissors,  after  which 
cut  off  all  protruding  wires,  and  unplait  the  tail-feathers 
and  smooth  them.  To  elevate  the  crest  of  a  bird,  or  any 
other  naturally  elevated  feathers,  —  such  as  the  elongated 
feathers  on  the  necks  of  some  species  of  Grouse,  etc., — roll  a 
piece  of  cotton  into  a  ball,  and  force  a  pin  or  piece  of  sharp- 
ened wire  through  it  (Plate  VIII.  Fig.  5,  g).  Place  this  wire 
or  pin  in  the  bird  in  such  a  manner  that  the  feathers  to 
be  elevated  may  rest  on  the  cotton  in  a  natural  position 
(Fig.  5,  b).  After  the  skin  becomes  hardened  the  cotton 
may  be  removed,  and  the  feathers  will  retain  the  desired 
position. 


CHAPTER    II. 

COLLECTING   AND    PRESERVING   MAMMALS. 

SECTION  I.  Collecting. —  Because  mammals  are  not  quite 
as  interesting  at  first  sight  as  birds,  the  study  of  this 
class  of  auimals  has  been  somewhat  neglected;  and  but 
comparatively  few  naturalists  are  even  aware  of  the  ex- 
istence of  some  of  the  smaller  mammalia  that  live  about 
them.  They  are,  however,  worthy  of  special  attention,  and, 
if  studied,  will  soon  be  found  particularly  interesting. 

In  collecting  mammals,  excepting  some  of  the  larger 
species,  the  gun  is  of  but  little  use ;  they  must  be  taken 
almost  entirely  with  traps.  Shrews  and  Moles  may  be 
frequently  found  where  they  have  been  dropped  by  cats, 
who  catch  them,  but  do  not  eat  them.  In  this  way  a 
great  many  valuable  specimens  may  be  obtained. 

Another  way  to  procure  Mice  and  Shrews  is  to  turn  over 
old  logs  and  stumps,  under  which  these  little  animals  fre- 
quently hide,  and  while  dazzled  by  the  light's  coming  in 
suddenly  upon  them,  they  may  be  readily  seized  in  the 
hand.  Mice  may  also  be  trapped. 

Squirrels  may  be  shot  or  caught  in  traps ;  Foxes,  trapped, 
shot,  or  dug  out  of  their  holes.  Woodchucks  are  easily 
trapped  or  dug  out.  Skunks  are  very  disagreeable  animals 
to  handle,  but  when  one  once  becomes  accustomed  to 
capturing  them  he  can  do  it  in  perfect  safety.  The  best 
way  is  to  catch  them  in  a  "  box-trap "  baited  with  the 
head  of  a  chicken ;  when  caught,  immerse  trap  and  skunk 
in  water  until  the  animal  is  dead.  Treated  in  this  man- 
ner, they  will  not  emit  any  of  their  disagreeable  scent. 
By  breaking  the  backbone  with  a  stout  stick,  when  the 


44  THE   NATURALIST'S    GUIDE. 

animal  is  caught  in  a  steel  trap,  the  disagreeable  emission 
will  be  prevented.  All  animals  should  be  killed  either 
by  breaking  the  backbone  or  by  compressing  the  ribs,  to 
stop  the  breath ;  never  by  a  blow  on  the  head,  as  this  is 
liable  to  injure  the  skull,  which  must  be  preserved  entire 
for  scientific  investigation. 

The  following  animals  may  be  decoyed  into  traps  by 
means  of  peculiar  scents  :  Foxes,  Fishers,  Martens,  Minks, 
Weasels,  Wildcats  of  all  species,  Otters,  Beavers,  Bears, 
Muskrats,  and  Raccoons.  These  scents  are  made  of  differ- 
ent substances.  The  musk  of  the  Muskrat,  contained  in 
two  glands  situated  just  below  the  skin  upon  the  back 
part  of  the  abdomen,  will  decoy  Muskrats  and  Minks,  and 
perhaps  Wildcats.  This  musk  may  be  procured  from  the 
male  in  early  spring.  After  the  two  glands  spoken  of 
are  removed,  they  may  be  cut  open,  when  the  musk  — 
which  is  a  milky  fluid  —  will. appear,  and  may  be  squeezed 
out,  mixed  with  alcohol,  and  kept  for  use.  This  musk  is 
used  in  the  following  manner  :  Cut  a  stick  of  pine  about 
six  inches  long,  make  a  small  cavity  in  one  end  ;  into  this 
drop  a  little  of  the  musk,  fasten  the  stick  in  such  a  position 
that  the  animal  to  be  decoyed  must  place  his  foot  upon 
the  trap  in  order  to  reach  it. 

Foxes,  I  have  been  informed  by  old  trappers,  are  read- 
ily decoyed  by  using  the  fetid  scent  of  the  Skunk  in  the 
same  manner.  This  scent  is  a  greenish  fluid,  and  is  con- 
tained in  glands  situated  in  the  anal  region ;  it  may  be 
obtained  in  the  same  manner  as  the  musk,  although  the 
operation  is  not  pleasant.  All  of  the  above-named  ani- 
mals may  be  successfully  decoyed  by  using  an  excessively 
fetid  scent  prepared  during  warm  weather  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  Take  a  good-sized  eel  or  trout,  and  cut  it 
in  small  pieces  ;  place  it  in  a  quart  bottle,  cover  the  top 
with  gauze  to  keep  the  flies  out,  hang  the  bottle  on  the 
south  side  of  a  fence  or  building,  and  let  it  remain  two 


COLLECTING    AND   PRESERVING  MAMMALS.  45 

or  three  weeks,  when  the  whole  mass  will  become  decom- 
posed ;  then  on  the  top  will  be  found  a  thin  layer  of  a 
clear  liquid  having  an  ineffably  disagreeable  odor.  This 
fluid  should  be  poured  off  carefully  into  a  small  phial  and 
closely  corked ;  it  is  to  be  used  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
other  scents.* 

Bats  may  be  shot,  or  taken  during  daylight  beneath  the 
shingles  of  buildings,  or  in  hollow  trees.  One  or  two  spe- 
cies, however,  remain  outside,  suspended  to  a  branch  or 
leaf  of  a  tree. 

Plaster  may  be  used  to  absorb  the  flow  of  blood  from 
mammals,  as  well  as  from  birds. 

SECTION  II.  Measuring.  —  To  measure  a  mammal  pre- 
paratory to  skinning :  Place  it  upon  its  back,  then  with  the 
dividers  measure  the  distance  from  the  tip  of  the  nose  to 
the  front  side  of  the  eye,  record  this  as  "  the  distance  from 
the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the  eye,"  then  from  the  tip  of  the  nose 
to  the  ear ;  this  is  "the  distance  from  the  nose  to  the  ear"; 
then  from  the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the  occiput,  or  back  of  the 
head,  for  "  the  distance  from  the  nose  to  the  occiput."  With 
the  rule  find  the  distance  from  "  the  nose  to  the  root  of  the 
tail,"  also  the  distance  from  "the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the  tip 
of  the  longest  toe  of  the  outstretched  hind  leg";  then 
with  the  dividers  find  the  length  of  the  vertebra  of  the  tail 
from  the  root ;  this  is  "  the  length  of  the  tail  to  the  end  of 
the  vertebra."  With  the  dividers,  measure  the  hair  on  the 
end  of  the  tail  for  "the  length  of  the  hair."  Measure  the 
length  of  the  hind  leg  from  the  knee-joint  to  the  tip  of  the 
longest  claw  of  the  longest  toe  for  "  the  length  of  the  hind 
leg."  Measure  the  length  of  the  front  leg  from  the  elbow- 
joint  to  the  tip  of  the  longest  claw  of  the  longest  toe  ;  this  ia 
"  the  length  of  the  front  leg."  The  width  of  the  hand  is 
found  by  measuring  the  width  of  the  outspread  forefoot  or 

*  This  receipt  was  kindly  given  to  me  by  Mr.  George  Smith  of  Wal- 
tham,  who  has  used  it  successfully,  as  I  have  personally  witnessed. 


46  THE  NATURALIST'S   GUIDE 

hand.  Now  measure  the  length  of  the  ear  on  the  back 
side,  from  the  skull  to  the  tip,  for  "  the  length  of  the  ear." 
Measure  "the  width  of  the  muzzle"  between  the  two  nostrils. 
In  animals  larger  than  a  gray  squirrel,  measure  the  "girth" 
with  a  tape-measure,  or  piece  of  string,  just  back  of  the 
forelegs. 

These  measurements  will  answer  for  all  excepting  the 
bats,  in  measuring  which  proceed  as  before  ;  but,  instead 
of  the  forelegs,  find  "  the  length  of  one  wing,"  "  the  length 
of  the  wing  to  the  hook,  or  thumb,"  and  "  the  stretch  of 
wings  "  as  in  birds. 

Seals  also  vary  slightly ;  instead  of  the  word  "  leg " 
use  "  flipper,"  and  find  the  width  of  the  hind  flipper  as 
well  as  the  width  of  the  fore  one ;  also,  in  addition,  "  the 
distance  between  the  fore-flippers."  The  sex  of  a  mammal 
is  easily  determined  without  dissecting.  These  measure- 
ments are  to  be  first  recorded  upon  a  strip  of  paper,  as 
in  the  birds,  and  afterwards  copied  into  a  book,  as  seen 
on  the  next  page. 

Skinning.  —  To  skin  a  mammal,  place  it  upon  its  back  ; 
make  a  longitudinal  incision  in  the  skin  over  the  abdo- 
men, extending  from  the  root  of  the  tail  about  one  fourth 
of  the  length  of  the  body.  Peel  down  each  side,  as  in 
skinning  a  bird,  pushing  forward  the  leg  so  as  to  expose 
the  knee-joint;  sever  the  leg  from  the  body  at  this  place, 
and  clean  the  bone ;  proceed  in  this  manner  with  the  other 
leg.  In  small  animals,  sever  the  tail  as  close  to  the  body 
as  possible,  leaving  the  bone  in  ;  but  in  large  animals  it 
can  generally  be  removed  by  placing  two  pieces  of  wood  on 
each  side  of  the  bone  against  the  skin,  holding  them  firmly 
in  place  with  one  hand,  and  after  giving  a  strong  pull  with 
the  other  the  tail  will  slip  out  easily.  With  some  animals, 
such  as  the  Beaver,  Muskrat,  Skunk,  etc.,  this  cannot  be 
done  ;  then  the  skin  of  the  tail  has  to  be  opened  the  whole 
length,  and  the  bone  removed.  Proceed  to  draw  the  skin 


COLLECTING   AND   PRESERVING   MAMMALS. 


47 


1  •  I 

1 

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£ 

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w          o          S    ' 

1 

£         g          8 

? 

i 

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£ 

Eye. 

i 

8 

1 

Ear. 

CO                  CO                   tO 

ft         £         8 

Occiput. 

Cn 

i 

1 

1 

Root  of  Tail. 

I    1    l 

Outstretched  Hind  Leg. 

91 

1 

:     End  of  Vertebra.                      H 

CO                  |                                                                                   g 

i    s    i 

End  of  Hair.                            S 

s    s    s 

Hind  Leg. 

Sis 

Length. 

3 

is 

a 

Width. 

8         S!         8 

Height  of  Ear. 

B 

1 

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Muzzle. 

5° 

1 

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Girth. 

1 

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Length.                                     $ 

1 

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Width. 

Top  of  head  black.  1 

1 

s 

Light  colored. 

I 

^ 


48  THE  NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

down  towards  the  head,  until  the  forelegs  appear;  sever 
these  at  the  knee-joint,  and  clean  the  bone  as  before.  Dra\v 
the  skin  over  the  head,  cutting  off  the  ears  close  to  the 
skull.  Use  caution  in  cutting  the  skin  from  the  eyelids 
and  in  severing  the  lips  from  the  skull,  so  as  not  to  in- 
jure their  outward  appearance.  The  skull  is  to  be  detached 
entirely.  Cover  the  inside  of  the  skin  well  with  arsenic, 
and,  if  large,  rub  it  in  well  with  the  hand;  but  be  sure 
that  every  part  is  poisoned. 

If  there  is  any  blood  upon  the  hair,  after  the  skin  is 
turned  into  its  former  position,  if  it  is  dry,  remove  it  with 
the  stiff  brush ;  if  wet  or  very  bloody,  wash  and  dry  with 
plaster,  as  explained  in  birds. 

Wind  the  leg-bones  with  sufficient  hemp  or  cotton  to 
supply  the  place  of  the  muscles ;  then  fill  out  the  head, 
neck,  and  the  rest  of  the  body  to  their  natural  size.  Sew 
up  the  orifice  through  which  the  body  was  removed  neatly 
over  and  over,  drawing  the  edges  of  the  skin  together 
aicely. 

Label  the  skin  by  sewing  a  bit  of  card-board  upon  one 
of  the  feet,  or,  if  the  animal  is  large,  upon  the  ear,  with 
the  number  of  the  specimen  and  the  sex  marked  upon  it. 
Clean  the  skull  as  much  as  possible  with  the  scalpel ;  if 
it  is  a  large  animal,  the  brains  may  be  removed  through 
the  orifice  where  the  spinal  cord  enters  the  skull.  If  this 
opening  is  not  large  enough  to  remove  them,  they  should 
be  left  in.  Roll  the  skull  in  arsenic,  then  label  it  with  a 
number  corresponding  to  the  one  upon  the  skin,  and  lay 
it  by  for  future  cleaning.  The  arsenic  prevents  insects 
from  attacking  it. 

Place  the  skin,  if  a  small  one,  upon  its  side,  with  the 
legs  bent  neatly ;  if  a  large  one,  upon  its  breast,  with  the 
legs  stretched  out  on  each  side,  the  forelegs  pointing  for- 
ward, the  hind  ones  backward.  This  is  what  is  technically 
called  a  "  mammal's  skin." 


COLLECTING   AND   PRESERVING  MAMMALS.  49 

Very  large  animals,  such  as  Deer  or  Bears,  should  not 
be  filled  out  in  this  way,  but  placed  flat.  In  skinning  large 
animals,  make  an  incision  in  the  form  of  a  double  cross, 
by  making  a  longitudinal  cut  between  the  hind  legs,  from 
the  root  of  the  tail  to  the  breast,  between  the  forelegs; 
then  a  transverse  cut  from  the  knee  of  the  foreleg  down 
the  inside  of  the  leg  to  the  opposite  knee.  The  same 
operation  is  repeated  upon  the  hind  legs.  Then  proceed 
as  before,  only,  when  the  skin  has  been  removed  from  the 
flanks,  the  animal  must  be  suspended  to  facilitate  the  re- 
moval of  the  rest. 

In  skinning  a  mammal  with  horns,  make  a  longitudinal 
incision  from  the  back  of  the  neck  to  the  occiput,  or  back 
of  the  head ;  then  make  a  transverse  cut  across  the  head, 
commencing  about  four  inches  beyond  the  right  horn,  and 
ending  about  four  inches  to  the  left  of  the  left  horn,  the 
cut  passing  close  to  the  base  of  the  horns,  thus  forming  a 
T.  Remove  the  skin  from  the  body  as  far  as  the  neck, 
•which  is  cut  at  its  junction  with  the  body.  The  skull,  horns, 
and  neck  are  drawn  through  the  above-mentioned  orifice. 

In  skinning  large  animals,  it  is  well  to  take  the  diameter 
of  the  eye  before  it  is  removed,  so  that  an  artificial  one 
may  be  inserted  of  the  same  size,  if  the  animal  is  to  be 
mounted,  as  the  eyelids  shrink  very  much  while  drying. 
All  mammals  should  be  skinned  as  soon  as  possible  after 
they  are  killed,  especially  small  ones,  as  in  a  few  hours 
decomposition  will  commence  ;  then  the  hair  will  come  out. 

While  skinning  the  legs  of  ruminants,  such  as  Deer, 
Sheep,  etc.,  it  will  be  found  that  the  skin  cannot  be  drawn 
over  the  knee-joint ;  then  cut  longitudinally  through  the 
skin  below  the  knee,  and  after  severing  the  bone  at  the 
hoof  and  knee,  remove  it  through  this  incision.  The  in- 
cision should  be  about  one  fourth  the  length  of  the  dis- 
tance from  the  knee  to  the  hoof. 

Bats  are  to  be  skinned  in  the  ordinary  manner,  rernov- 
3  D 


50  THE  NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

iug  the  skin  even  to  the  tip  of  the  phalanges  of  the  wings ; 
then  tie  the  wing-bones  together,  as  explained  in  birds. 
Place  the  bat  upon  a  flat  board  to  dry,  and  pin  its  wings 
in  the  proper  position  for  flight.  When  dry,  stitch  it  upon 
a  piece  of  card-board. 

While  skinning  mammals,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
use  plaster  to  absorb  the  blood  and  other  juices  that  are 
apt  to  flow  ;  but  if  care  is  taken  not  to  cut  the  inner  skin 
over  the  abdomen  it  will  not  be  needed.  It  is  also  some- 
times necessary  to  plug  the  mouth  and  nostrils,  especially 
if  blood  flows  from  them. 

SECTION  III.  Mounting  Mammals.  —  The  art  of  mount- 
ing mammals  in  lifelike  attitudes  can  only  be  acquired  by 
experience.  Hence  the  learner  must  practise  the  utmost 
degree  of  patience  and  perseverance.  As  in  the  first 
chapter  I  earnestly  advised  those  who  would  be  perfect  to 
study  nature,  I  would  here  repeat  that  advice.  And  if 
necessary  while  endeavoring  to  mount  a  bird,  where  the 
feathers  cover  the  minor  defects,  it  is  essentially  much 
more  of  a  necessity  to  study  nature  carefully  while  striv- 
ing to  imitate  the  graceful  attitudes  and  delicately  formed 
limbs  of  the  smaller  species  of  mammalia,  or  the  full 
rounded  muscles  and  imposing  attitudes  of  the  larger 
ones ;  for  in  mammals  the  thin  coat  of  hair  will  tend  rather 
to  expose  than  hide  the  most  minute  imperfections. 

Perfectly  stuffed  specimens  can  only  be  obtained  by  care- 
ful measurements  of  all  the  parts,  such  as  the  size  of  the 
legs,  body,  etc. 

In  skinning  mammals  to  mount,  it  is  best  not  to  remove 
the  skull.  Open  it  on  the  occipital  bone,  so  as  to  remove 
the  brains  ;  clean  well ;  cover  with  arsenic  ;  then  supply 
the  muscles  removed,  by  using  hemp  wound  tightly  on 
with  thread.  As  the  skin  will  shrink  badly  if  it  is  stuffed 
loosely,  carefully  fill  out  the  space  occupied  by  the  mus- 
cles of  the  legs  in  the  same  manner.  Cut  wires  for  the 


THE  WAY  TO  MOUNT  MAMMALS.         51 

feet,  head,  and  tail,  sharpen  them  on  one  end  as  directed 
in  mounting  birds ;  now  roll  up  grass  until  it  is  not  quite 
as  large  round  as  the  body,  and  about  one  third  as  long. 
Fill  the  fore  part  of  the  skin  with  bran  or  cut  hemp  as  far 
back  as  the  shoulders,  and  place  the  ball  of  grass  against 
this  filling,  inside  the  skin.  Now  force  the  wires  through 
the  soles  of  the  feet  and  top  of  the  head  into  this  ball ; 
clinch  them  firmly.  After  filling  the  skin  of  the  tail  with 
bran,  force  the  wire  through  the  grass  ball  to  the  very  end ; 
then  clinch  the  opposite  end  in  the  ball  by  cutting  off  the 
part  that  protrudes  and  turning  it  in. 

Fill  the  remaining  parts  of  the  skin  with  bran  to  the 
natural  size,  and  sew  up  the  orifice  carefully;  place  the 
animal  in  the  proper  position  by  passing  the  protruding 
wires  of  the  feet  through  holes  in  a  board,  clinching  them 
firmly  on  the  under  side.  The  skin  may  now  be  moulded 
into  shape  with  the  hands,  the  hair  carefully  smoothed, 
the  eyes  set  in  the  head  with  putty,  the  protruding  wires 
cut  off,  and  the  specimen  set  away  to  dry.  There  are 
but  few  rules  to  be  followed  in  placing  animals  in  posi- 
tion, because  they  are  almost  infinite  in  variety.  The  most 
imperative  rule  applies  to  the  positions  of  the  legs,  which 
are  almost  always  the  same ;  and  it  should  be  studied  with 
particular  care,  as  a  slight  deviation  from  it  will  impair 
the  lifelike  attitude  of  the  specimen.  The  rule  is  :  Never 
place  the  bones  of  the  first  joint  (Plate  IX.  No.  1)  and 
those  of  the  second  joint  (2)  of  the  hind  legs  in  a  straight 
line,  but  always  at  an  angle,  more  or  less  ;  while  the  two 
bones  of  the  forelegs  (3,  4)  should  almost  always  be  placed 
in  a  straight  line,  —  always  when  the  animal  is  standing 
upon  them. 

In  imitating  that  peculiarly  graceful  attitude  assumed 
by  tjie  squirrels  while  sitting  upon  their  hind  legs  feeding, 
after  imitating  the  curve  of  the  back,  —  which  not  one  in 
a  hundred  can  do  naturally,  —  place  the  joints  of  the  hind 


52  THE   NATURALIST'S    GUIDE. 

legs  so  far  up,  and  at  such  an  acute  angle,  and  the  joints 
of  the  forelegs  down  at  such  an  angle,  that  the  two  will 
almost  touch.  This  rule  should  always  be  followed. 

The  preceding  method  may  be  applied  when  mounting 
all  animals  below  the  size  of  a  Newfoundland  dog.  Larger 
animals  are.  mounted  in  the  following  manner :  Fill  out 
the  space  occupied  by  the  muscles  of  the  head  and  legs 
in  the  manner  already  described.  Procure  five  iron  rods, 
with  a  shoulder  cut  at  each  end,  upon  which  fit  a  cap 
(Plate  IX.  Fig.  2,  B) ;  on  the  extreme  end  have  a  thread 
cut  with  a  nut  to  fit  (A),  —  the  distance  between  the  nut 
and  cap  should  be  about  an  inch  and  a  half.  Cut  a  piece 
of  plank,  an  inch  and  a  half  thick,  about  two  thirds  as 
long  and  wide  as  the  body  of  the  mammal  to  be  mounted ; 
bore  five  holes  in  it,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  1,  A.  Fasten 
one  rod  (8)  firmly  to  the  skull  by  drilling  a  hole  through 
the  top  and  placing  the  cap  in  the  proper  position.  Screw 
the  nut  on  well  (14),  and  place  the  lower  end  of  the  rod  in 
the  hole  in  the  plank  prepared  for  it  (11) ;  fasten  it  firmly. 
Now  stuff  the  neck  out  with  hemp  to  the  proper  size.  Drill 
a  hole  through  the  hoofs,  or  bottom  of  the  feet,  into  the 
hollow  of  the  bones  (2,  4);  force  the  rod  (7,  7,  7,  7)  up 
through  this  hole,  through  the  stuffing  of  the  legs,  and 
fasten  them  into  the  plank  (5,  6).  Force  a  wire  into  the 
tail  and  clinch  it  firmly  in  the  wood  (15).  By  winding  up 
grass  or  hemp,  imitate  the  various  sections  of  the  body 
taken  out,  and  place  them  in  the  proper  positions  (1G), 
making  allowance  for  the  plank  and  rods.  Or  a  better 
way  is  to  take  casts  in  plaster  of  the  different  parts  and 
place  them  in  the  proper  position. 

Everything  must  be  solid,  to  avoid  sinkings  and  depres- 
sions in  the  skin.  In  this  way  the  student  can  mount 
an  animal  of  any  size  by  increasing  the  size  of  the  rods  and 
plank.  The  ends  of  the  rods  must  be  fastened  into  a 
plank  stand  (10)  by  passing  them  through  holes  drilled 
in  it  (17,  17,  17,  17). 


THE   WAY   TO  MOUNT   MAMMALS.  53 


54  THE  NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

To  mount  a  dried  skin,  first  soak  it  in  alum-water  until 
it  is  perfectly  pliable,  and  then  mount  as  before.  The 
water  should  not  be  tou  strongly  impregnated  with  alum, 
or  it  will  crystallize  upon  the  hair.  About  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  alum  to  a  gallon  of  water  are  the  proper  propor- 
tions. If  the  skull  has  been  detached,  replace  it,  or  make 
an  artificial  one  of  grass  or  plaster  to  take  its  place.  Mam- 
mals that  have  been  preserved  in  alcohol  may  be  skinned 
in  the  usual  manner  and  mounted. 

To  skin  mammals  for  the  fur  alone,  cut  in  a  straight  line 
from  the  inside  of  the  knee  of  one  hind  leg  to  the  other. 
Skin  as  before  explained,  only  cut  off  the  feet  and  detach 
the  skull.  Stretch  smoothly  on  a  thin  board,  with  the 
wrong  side  out.  The  skin  should  be  lengthened  rather  than 
widened. 


CHAPTER    III. 

COLLECTING   AND    PRESERVING   INSECTS   FOR   THE   CABINET. 

THIS  interesting  class  of  animals  has  for  a  long  time 
engaged  the  attention  of  students,  yet  it  is  surprising  how 
comparatively  little  has  been  written  about  those  of  Amer- 
ica. The  almost  infinite  number  of  species  still  affords 
the  young  naturalist  a  wide  field  for  careful  investigation. 

In  collecting  insects,  the  instruments  used  are  :  An  insect- 
net,  made  of  fine  muslin  or  of  silk  gauze,  and  stretched 
upon  a  light  steel  wire  frame,  with  a  light  handle,  about 
four  feet  long,  attached ;  several  wide-mouthed  bottles  and 
phials  filled  with  strong  alcohol;  insect-pins  of  the  best 
quality,  which  can  be  procured  at  natural-history  stores; 
tweezers  smaller  than  those  used  for  birds  (Plate  I.  Fig.  3); 
also,  a  small  pair  of  pliers  (Fig.  1) ;  several  soft-pine  boards 
about  twelve  by  twenty-four  inches,  planed  perfectly  smooth, 
will  also  be  needed. 

Boxes  or  drawers  are  necessary  for  the  reception  of  the 
dried  specimens,  lined  with  thick  felting  or  cork  to  receive 
the  point  of  the  pin  that  holds  the  insect  and  keeps  it 
upright.  An  excellent  box  lined  with  paper  is  sometimes 
used  to  advantage,  a  description  of  which  may  be  found  in 
the  "American  Naturalist,"  Vol.  I.  p.  156. 

I  hardly  need  state  that  a  good  microscope  is  indispensa- 
ble in  prosecuting  the  study  of  insects,  although  it  may  be 
commenced  without  one.  I  shall  take  each  order  of  insects 
separately,  and  endeavor  to  explain  how  they  are  collected 
and  preserved,  commencing  with  the 

Beetles,  or  Coleoptera.  —  The  best  way  to  preserve  bee- 
tles temporarily  is  by  putting  them  instantly  into  strong 


56  THE   NATURALIST'S    GUIDE. 

alcohol ;  and  as  the  collector  will  meet  with  specimens 
everywhere,  he  should  never  be  without  a  phial  ready  for 
instant  use.  During  spring  and  early  summer  thousands 
of  minute  species  may  be  captured  in  the  air  with  the 
net,  especially  just  at  night.  During  summer  and  autumn 
a  great  many  nocturnal  species  may  be  captured  near  a 
light  placed  at  an  open  window,  or  in  the  open  air.  Vari- 
ous species  may  be  found  feeding  upon  plants  during  the 
summer  and  autumn.  A  great  many  of  the  so-called  car- 
rion-beetles may  be  taken,  during  the  same  seasons,  by  ex- 
posing the  carcass  of  an  animal.  Some  species  inhabit 
decayed  wood,  where  diligent  search  should  be  made  for 
them,  especially  in  the  woods,  under  old  stumps  or  in  them. 
Numbers  of  very  beautiful  beetles  may  be  found  in  the 
excrements  of  animals,  and  under  them,  also  under  stones 
and  logs  of  wood  ;  they  are  found  beneath  the  bark  of  trees 
and  on  sandy  places,  or  in  dusty  roads.  There  are  also  a 
few  aquatic  species  to  be  found  in  the  water  or  near  it. 

To  mount  large  beetles,  force  the  pin  through  the  right 
wing-covert  near  the  thorax,  and  place  the  point  in  the 
cork,  with  the  beetle's  feet  resting  on  it;  place  the  feet 
in  the  attitude  of  life,  with  the  antennae  in  the  proper 
position,  with  a  pin  on  each  side  of  them  to  keep  them 
in  place  until  dry.  If  the  wings  are  to  be  extended, 
place  the  beetle  on  the  pin  as  described;  then,  with  an 
awl,  bore  a  hole  in  the  pine  board ;  lay  the  insect  upon 
its  back,  with  the  head  of  the  pin  in  the  hole  ;  now  open 
the  wing-coverts,  and  spread  the  wings ;  over  the  latter 
lay  a  piece  of  card-board,  and  fasten  it  by  placing  pins 
through  it  into  the  wood  on  each  side.  The  wing-cov- 
erts should  not  be  fastened  with  a  card,  as  it  will  flatten 
them.  When  dry,  remove  the  card,  and  the  wings  will 
retain  their  position,  when  the  beetle  can  be. put  in  the 
proper  position  in  the  insect-box. 

Smaller  beetles,   less  than  an  eighth  of  an  inch  long, 


BUGS,    OR   HEMIPTEBA.  57 

should  be  fastened  to  a  piece  of  mica  or  to  a  round  bit  of 
card-board  with  a  little  gum-arabic,  and  the  pin  placed 
through  the  mica  or  card,  or  they  may  be  transfixed  with 
very  fine  silver  wire ;  this  wire  must  then  be  inserted  in 
a  bit  of  cork,  through  which  the  common  insect -pin  is 
placed. 

Beetles  that  are  collected  in  remote  countries  should 
always  be  transported  in  alcohol.  When  they  are  to  re- 
main long  in  alcohol  it  should  be  changed  once,  then 
they  will  keep  for  years  uninjured.  After  they  have  been 
in  alcohol  for  two  or  three  weeks  there  is  no  need  of  its 
covering  them,  as  a  little  in  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  will 
keep  them  sufficiently  moist ;  but  they  should  never  be 
allowed  to  dry. 

Beetles  may  be  preserved  in  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic 
acid  as  readily  as  in  alcohol.  This  has  the  additional  ad- 
vantage of  preserving  the  specimens  that  have  been  im- 
mersed in  it  from  the  ravages  of  noxious  insects  for  some 
time.  Glycerine  can  be  used  to  advantage  in  preserving 
beetles  that  have  delicate  colors  which  fade  in  alcohol ; 
but  they  cannot  be  pinned  without  cleansing. 

Bugs,  or  Hemiptera,  may  be  found  generally  upon  plants. 
The  common  thistle  (Cirsium  lanceolatum]  furnishes  a  pas- 
ture for  several  species.  Numerous  representatives  of  this 
order  may  be  found  on  low  bushes,  and  in  the  grass  during 
summer  and  autumn.  At  least  one  species  may  be  found 
in  cheap  boarding-houses  during  the  midnight  hours.  The 
almost  endless  variety  of  Plant  Lice  corne  under  this  head, 
and  may  be  taken  everywhere  on  plants  during  summer 
and  autumn. 

These  insects,  like  the  beetle,  are  first  immersed  in 
alcohol,  and  afterwards  placed  upon  pins,  with  the  legs 
arranged  in  natural  positions,  and  the  peculiar  sucking- 
tube,  with  which  they  are  all  provided,  brought  well  for- 
ward so  as  to  be  more  easily  examined.  The  numerous 
3* 


58  THE   NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

aquatic  species  may  be  secured  with  a  net ;  they  should 
be  carefully  handled,  however,  to  avoid  the  sharp  sting,  or 
piercer,  with  which  some  of  them  are  armed. 

Grasshoppers,  Crickets,  etc.,  or  Orthoptera.  —  Members  of 
thia  order  may  be  found  everywhere,  —  the  grasshoppers  in 
the  open  fields  and  woods,  where  they  may  be  caught  in 
nets.  The  best  way  to  kill  them  is  to  prick  them  on  the 
under  side  of  the  thorax  with  the  point  of  a  quill  that 
has  been  dipped  in  a  solution  of  oxalic  acid.  If  they 
are  not  to  be  mounted  instantly,  wrap  them  in  paper. 
Crickets  may  be  found  in  the  ground  in  holes  or  burrows, 
under  stones,  and  in  the  grass ;  a  few  species  may  be  taken 
on  the  leaves  of  trees  or  bushes ;  some  species  of  the  well- 
known  Cockroach  may  be  found  in  houses,  and  some  under 
stones  and  beneath  the  bark  of  trees. 

All  of  the  above  may  be  mounted  by  placing  the  pin 
through  the  thorax,  and  arranging  the  legs  as  before  de- 
scribed. The  wings  are  also  extended  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  beetles',  with  the  exception  of  the  wing-coverts, 
which  are  fastened  with  cards  like  the  wings. 

Walking-Sticks  are  found  on  low  bushes  or  on  trees,  some- 
times upon  the  ground.  They  are  to  be  put  into  alcohol 
to  kill  them,  then  mounted  like  the  beetles.  These  in- 
sects, when  dry,  require  delicate  manipulation  while  being 
moved,  as  they  are  very  fragile.  When  the  colors  of  the 
Orthoptera  are  to  be  preserved  perfectly,  place  them  in 
pure  glycerine.  This  is  especially  necessary  in  preserving 
the  larva}  of  grasshoppers.  Grasshoppers  may  be  put  into 
alcohol  if  convenient,  but  it  must  be  very  strong.  This 
method  will  generally  change  the  colors  completely.  Cock- 
roaches and  crickets  should  always  be  killed  by  placing 
them  in  strong  alcohol. 

Moths  and  Butterflies,  or  Lepidoptera.  —  All  butterflies 
are  diurnal,  and  are  generally  caught  with  the  net.  They 
may  be  killed  by  pinching  the  body  just  below  the  wings, 


MOTHS   AXD    BUTTERFLIES,   OR   LEPIUOPTERA.          59 

or  by  pricking  between  the  forelegs  with  the  quill  and 
oxalic  acid  used  in  killing  grasshoppers.  If  they  are 
not  to  be  mounted  instantly,  they  should  be  packed  in 
pieces  of  paper  doubled  in  a  triangular  shape,  with  the 
edges  folded.  Butterflies  may  be  reared  from  the  egg  by 
capturing  the  impregnated  female  and  confining  her  in  a 
box  pierced  with  holes  to  allow  fresh  air  to  enter.  In 
this  box  she  will  deposit  her  eggs ;  these  are  allowed  to 
hatch,  and  the  larvae  fed  upon  the  leaves  that  they  natu- 
rally subsist  upon.  When  sufficient  time  has  expired  they 
will  cease  to  feed,  and  form  a  pupa  or  chrysalis,  and  either 
in  a  few  weeks  or  the  ensuing  year  come  forth  perfect 
insects,  when  they  should  be  instantly  killed.  In  this  man- 
ner the  collector  will  be  able  to  secure  fine  specimens. 

Although  some  few  of  the  moths  are  diurnal  in  their 
habits,  the  greater  part  are  strictly  nocturnal.  A  great 
many  specimens  may  be  decoyed  by  the  use  of  a  bright 
light.  During  the  months  of  May,  June,  July,  August, 
and  September,  the  following  method  may  be  practised 
with  advantage  in  securing  many  specimens.  Mix  coarse 
brown  sugar  with  alcohol  enough  to  form  a  thick  paste, 
saturate  rags  thoroughly  with  this  paste,  and  hang  them 
on  trees  or  stakes  in  an  open  grove  or  wood  at  twilight ; 
;>r  daub  some  of  the  mixture  upon  the  stakes  or  trees. 
This  mixture,  thus  exposed,  will  attract  the  moths.  The 
places  should  be  visited  every  few  minutes  with  a  dark 
lantern,  taking  care  not  to  throw  the  light  upon  the  spot 
until  near  enough  to  catch  the  moths  in  the  net  if  they 
should  attempt  to  escape. 

Mr.  F.  G.  Sanborn  —  who  informs  me  that  he  uses  the 
strong-smelling  New  England  molasses  in  the  above-de- 
scribed manner  with  success  —  rightly  remarks  "that  moths 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes  by  certain  species  of 
them  being  affected  differently  by  the  appearance  of  arti- 
ficial light  in  the  night.  One  class  are  powerfully  attracted 


6C  THE   NATURALIST'S    GUIDE. 

by  it ;  another  class  go  about  their  usual  avocations  un- 
mindful of  it ;  while  a  third  class  are  instantly  expelled 
by  it."  The  third  class  are  by  far  the  most  difficult  to 
capture. 

Moths  are  easily  reared  from  the  eggs.  In  autumn  and 
winter  numerous  cocoons  may  be  found  upon  trees  and 
bushes ;  these,  if  kept  in  a  warm  room,  will  hatch  in  early 
spring. 

In  mounting  butterflies  and  moths  I  have  practised  the 
same  method  as  described  in  mounting  beetles,  and  think 
it  superior  to  all  others.  In  mounting  these  insects,  how- 
ever, it  is  well  to  use  what  is  called  a  "  setting-needle,"  to 
avoid  rubbing  the  scales  off  the  wings  with  the  fingers. 

The  "  setting-needle "  is  simply  a  common  needle  fas- 
tened into  a  light  stick ;  two  of  these  will  be  found  use- 
ful, —  one  to  hold  the  body  of  the  insect  firm,  and  the  other 
to  place  the  wings  and  antennae  in  the  proper  position. 
The  eggs  and  larvae  of  the  Lepidoptera  should  be  placed 
in  alcohol. 

There  is  a  class  of  moths  called  Hawk-Moths,  Sphinxes, 
or  Humming-Bees,  some  species  of  which  are  diurnal,  and 
some  nocturnal.  They  are  all  difficult  to  capture  un- 
injured, as  they  fly  rapidly,  and,  when  caught  in  the  net, 
struggle  fiercely. 

The  larva),  when  about  to  form  the  pupa,  go  into  the 
ground  ;  for  this  reason  the  box  that  contains  those  that 
are  being  reared  should  be  partly  filled  with  moist  earth. 
They  are  mounted  in  the  same  manner  as  the  other 
Lepidoptera.  All  bright-colored  insects  when  in  the  cabi- 
net should  be  kept  from  the  light  as  much  as  possible, 
especially  those  belonging  to  the  above  order. 

Dragon-flies,  etc.,  or  Neuroptera.  —  Dragon-flies  are,  on 
account  of  their  quick  motions,  somewhat  difficult  to  cap- 
ture;  they  are  found  flying  over  the  fields  and  mead- 
ows ;  most  abundant,  however,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 


BEES.   WASPS,   ETC.,    OR    HYMEXOPTEBA.  Gl 

bodies  of  fresh  water.  The  lace-winged  flies  are  also  found 
in  the  vicinity  of  water.  The  larvse  of  almost  all  of  these 
insects  are  aquatic.  They  emerge  from  the  water  perfect 
insects.  The  larvse  should  be  preserved  in  alcohol.  The 
perfect  insects  are  killed  with  oxalic  acid,  and  for  trans- 
portation are  packed  in  paper  like  the  butterflies.  When 
they  are  to  be  mounted,  a  copper  wire  is  placed  through 
the  body  and  head ;  the  wings  are  then  spread,  as  before 
described. 

Bees,  Wasps,  etc.,  or  Hymenoptera.  —  Members  of  this 
order  may  be  found  everywhere  in  the  fields  and  woods. 
Their  larvae  generally  resemble  grubs,  or  maggots,  and 
should  be  preserved  in  alcohol  or  glycerine. 

The  larva)  of  the  Ichneumon-Fly  are  found  in  the  bodies 
of  caterpillars.  The  larvse  of  other  species  are  found  in 
the  excrescences  on  various  plants  and  trees.  This  class 
of  insects  may  be  caught  in  a  net  and  placed  in  alcohol,  or 
killed  with  oxalic  acid.  They  are  to  be  mounted  as  the 
other  winged  insects ;  the  tongue  must  be  brought  forward 
so  that  it  can  be  examined  when  the  insect  is  dry. 

The  nests  of  the  Wood-boring  Bees,  the  Paper-making 
Wasps,  and  Hornets,  the  mud  nests  of  the  Mason  Wasps, 
the  excrescences  on  trees  and  plants,  should  all  be  col- 
lected and  preserved  dry  after  the  lai  vse  has  been  taken 
out.  Ants  with  their  eggs  and  larvse  may  be  put  into 
alcohol ;  it  is  best  to  capture  these  fierce  little  insects  with 
the  tweezers,  to  avoid  their  stings,  which  are  sometimes 
poisonous. 

Flies,  Mosquitoes,  etc.,  or  Diptera.  —  These  are  the  most 
difficult  of  all  insects  to  preserve,  especially  when  they 
have  to  be  transported  from  a  distance,  as  they  must  all 
be  instantly  pinned,  with  the  exception  of  the  Fleas,  which 
may  be  put  into  alcohol. 

They  may  be  caught  everywhere  by  beating  bushes  by 
the  side  of  the  roads  and  woods,  then  using  the  net. 


62  -THE   NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

Some  of  the  species  are  nocturnal  (as  those  who  have  slept 
in  the  open  air  in  the  woods  during  the  warm  months  can 
bear  painful  testimony),  and  may  be  attracted  by  artificial 
light,  as  in  the  case  of  the  moths,  etc.  Their  larvae  are 
found  in  various  situations,  some  being  aquatic,  others 
feeding  upon  putrid  flesh  and  fish ;  they  may  be  preserved 
in  alcohol. 

In  closing  this  chapter,  I  would  impress  upon  the  stu- 
dent the  absolute  necessity  of  labelling  every  specimen 
carefully,  with  the  date  and  the  locality  in  which  it  is 
found ;  this  may  be  done  by  numbers  referring  to  a 
catalogue,  as  in  birds  and  mammals,  or  upon  a  slip  of 
paper.  Also  take  notes  of  various  circumstances  relative 
to  the  habits  observed  at  the  time  of  capture,  etc. 

The  best  substance  to  protect  cabinet  specimens  from 
the  attacks  of  injurious  insects  is  benzine,  placed  in  an 
open  vessel  in  each  drawer  or  box.  Camphor  is  also 
good,  but  I  think  that  its  fumes  tend  to  fade  the  brighter 
colors  of  moths  and  butterflies.  Spirits  of  turpentine  is 
good,  but  it  evaporates  much  quicker  than  benzine.  Car- 
bolic acid  is,  next  to  benzine,  perhaps  the  best  substance, 
if  exposed  in  the  same  manner. 

To  mount  insects  that  have  been  dried,  place  them  in  a 
box  containing  wet  sand,  and  let  them  remain  until  soft, 
when  they  are  mounted  as  before  directed.  I  am  informed 
by  Mr.  F.  G.  Sanborn  that  a  few  drops  of  carbolic  acid 
mixed  with  the  water  used  in  moistening  the  sand  will 
prevent  mould  from  forming  upon  them  while  they  are 
being  softened.  The  same  preventive  might  be  put  in 
the  water  used  in  moistening  the  cotton  for  softening  bird- 
skins. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

COLLECTING   AND    PRESERVING    FISHES    AND    REPTILES. 

SECTION  I.  Fishes.  —  Very  many  are  they  who  at  the 
present  day  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  the  "  Father  of  all 
Anglers,"  the  good  Izaak  Walton,  concerning  the  mere 
sport  of  angling ;  but,  alas !  there  are  few  who,  like  him, 
look  with  contemplative  minds  upon  the  great  works  of 
Nature ;  for  the  worthy  Izaak  was  quite  a  naturalist,  after 
his  fashion,  and  loved  exceedingly  to  prate,  in  his  quaint 
style,  of  the  wondrous  birds,  beasts,  and  fishes  of  which 
he  had  seen  or  heard.  Few,  indeed,  are  they  who,  al- 
though some  of  their  happiest  moments  are  spent  by  the 
side  of  the  clear  mountain  brook,  with  rod  in  hand,  see  in 
the  beautiful  trout,  that  they  with  exultation  draw  from 
its  sparkling  home,  anything  more  than  a  good  dinner  on 
the  morrow. 

Yet  there  are  a  few  earnest  naturalists  who  love  to 
study  the  finny  tribes  as  they  ought  to  be  studied. 
Indeed,  the  science  of  Ichthyology  can  claim  among  its 
most  earnest  students  the  greatest  naturalist  in  our  land. 
Those  who  live  inland  do  not  possess  the  advantages  of 
making  as  extensive  a  collection  of  fishes  as  those  who 
reside  upon  the  sea-shore ;  nevertheless,  they  can  all  do 
something  for  this  branch  of  natural  history. 

In  collecting  fishes  the  instruments  generally  used  are 
nets  and  hooks  and  lines ;  with  these  try  and  secure  every 
variety  that  can  be  found.  Many  species  can  be  secured 
from  the  markets,  where  fishes  are  exposed  for  sale,  by 
picking  out  the  specimens  that  are  needed.  The  best 
way  to  preserve  fishes  is  to  put  them  into  alcohol.  All 


64  THE  NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

large  fishes  should  also  be  injected  with  alcohol  before  put- 
ing  them  in  it. 

There  is,  however,  another  method  by  which  fishes  may  be 
preserved ;  that  is,  by  skinning  and  stuffing.  Thus  :  Open 
the  fish  on  the  under  side  from  the  throat  nearly  to  the  end 
of  the  body,  or  within  a  short  distance  of  the  root  of  the  tail ; 
then  skin  down  each  way,  taking  care  not  to  scrape  off  any 
of  the  pigment  that  covers  the  inside  of  the  skin  and  gives 
the  fish  its  color ;  cut  off  the  fins  close  to  the  skin  on  the 
inside,  also  the  head  at  the  gills ;  clean  out  the  brains  by 
enlarging  the  hole  in  the  occiput,  where  the  spinal  cord 
enters  the  skull;  remove  the  eye  from  the  outside,  dust 
arsenic  into  the  orifice  left,  and  fill  it  with  cotton ;  cover 
the  inside  of  the  skin  with  arsenic ;  fill  it  to  the  natural 
size  with  cotton,  and  sew  it  up ;  place  a  wire  transversely 
through  the  fins  to  keep  them  in  position. 

Another  method  is  to  remove  the  skin  from  one  side, 
and  to  clean  the  flesh  out  in  this  way ;  the  fish  is  then 
stuffed  and  placed  upon  its  side,  so  that  the  opening  will 
not  show.  This  method  will  answer  very  well  for  flat 
fishes,  but  large  ones  must  always  be  stuffed  in  the  man- 
ner first  described. 

SECTION  II.  Reptiles.  —  Many  a  harmless  snake  or  toad 
has  been  sacrificed  to  ignorance  and  superstition.  Indeed, 
so  strong  is  the  general  prejudice  against  the  most  com- 
mon snakes,  —  which  are  as  incapable  of  inflicting  an  injury 
as  a  mouse,  —  that  but  few  persons  will  hesitate  to  kill  the 
supposed  venomous  reptile  at  sight,  if  indeed  they  have 
the  courage  to  remain  long  enough  in  its  vicinity  to  do  so 
valiant  a  deed.  Such  persons  really  believe  that  they  are 
removing  a  dangerous  adversary  of  man  from  the  face  of 
the  earth.  I  would,  however,  advise  them  to  glance  for  a 
single  instant  at  the  history  of  these  interesting  —  al- 
though, I  will  allow,  somewhat  disgusting-looking  —  ani- 
mals before  they  again  shed  innocent  blood.  All  the  snakes 


REPTILES.  65 

in  Massachusetts  may  be  handled  with  impunity,  •with  the 
exception  of  two  species,  which  are  very  rare.  I  refer 
to  the  Copperhead  and  Rattlesnake.  The  prettily  marked 
Milk  Snake,  or  Checkered  Adder,  and  the  imaginary  ter- 
rible Water  Snake,  are  quite  harmless,  although  we  are 
everywhere  informed  by  those  who  are  ignorant  upon  this 
subject  that  they  are  exceedingly  venomous.  So  long  as 
people  are  erroneously  educated  in  this  belief,  so  long  will 
the  poor  snakes  suffer  unjustly.  Snakes,  with  but  few 
exceptions,  are  neutral  regarding  the  interest  of  man. 

The  best  method  of  preserving  snakes  is  to  put  them 
into  alcohol  moderately  strong,  as  otherwise  the  scales  start 
easily.  Snakes  may  be  benumbed  by  thrusting  a  pin  into 
their  brains;  in  this  way  they  may  be  carried  from  place  to 
place  more  readily  than  if  they  were  uninjured. 

Snakes  may  be  skinned  after  making  a  longitudinal  in- 
cision, about  two  inches  long,  in  the  largest  part  of  the 
body,  on  the  belly ;  then  by  drawing  back  the  skin,  the 
body  may  be  divided,  and  the  parts  drawn  out  each  way. 
The  head  should  not  be  skinned.  The  eyes  are  removed, 
as  in  the  fishes,  from  the  outside.  The  skin  is  now  cov- 
ered with  arsenic  and  turned  back.  It  is  then  filled  with 
bran  to  the  natural  size.  It  may,  after  sewing  up  the 
incision,  be  placed  in  any  position  desired.  Artificial  eyes 
are  fixed  in  the  head. 

If  the  head  is  to  be  raised,  run  a  sharpened  wire 
through  the  top  of  it,  and  through  that  section  of  the 
neck  and  body  that  is  to  be  elevated,  through  the  skin  into 
a  board,  cut  off  the  protruding  end,  and  close  the  skin  of 
the  head  over  it.  After  the  skin  becomes  dry,  the  wire 
can  be  taken  out  of  the  board,  and  cut  off  close  to  the  body. 

Turtles  may  be  preserved  in  alcohol,  or  they  may  be 
skinned  and  mounted  thus  :  With  a  small  steel  saw  cut 
out  a  square  section  on  the  under  shell ;  remove  this  and 
draw  the  intestines,  bones,  and  flesh  of  the  legs,  etc.,  out 


66  THE   NATURALIST'S    GUIDE. 

of  the  hole  thus  formed  ;  skin  the  legs  down  to  the  toe- 
nails,  removing  everything  ;  skin  the  head  and  neck  ;  cover 
the  inside  of  the  shell  and  skin  with  arsenic.  Turn  the 
feet  and  neck  back,  and  stuff  them  to  the  natural  size 
with  cotton.  Fill  the  neck  with  bran  ;  roll  up  a  small  ball 
of  grass,  place  it  inside  of  the  shell;  then  force  a  piece 
of  wire  through  it  into  the  head,  and  clinch  the  end  in 
the  ball.  Pack  cotton  or  hemp  around  the  grass  in  the  shell, 
to  keep  it  firm,  and  to  fill  up  the  empty  space  ;  then  re- 
place the  piece  of  shell  taken  out,  and  fasten  it  with  glue 
or  putty. 

Now  put  the  animal  in  the  proper  attitude  upon  a  piece 
of  board,  and  arrange  the  feet  in  the  natural  position,  and 
pin  them  until  dry ;  place  the  head  naturally.  The  eyes 
should  be  removed  from  the  outside,  and  artificial  ones 
substituted.  If  it  is  not  convenient  to  skin  a  turtle,  place 
it  in  boiling  water  a  few  moments,  when  the  softer  parts 
can  easily  be  removed  from  the  shell.  In  this  case,  how- 
ever, the  bones  and  skull  should  be  cleaned,  labelled,  and 
preserved  with  the  shell. 

For  scientific  specimens,  toads  and  frogs  must  be  pre- 
served in  alcohol.  But  they  may  be  skinned  in  the  follow- 
ing manner  :  Open  the  mouth  as  wide  as  possible,  and  cut 
through  the  bone  of  the  neck  or  back  from  the  inside ;  do 
not  cut  the  skin ;  then  separate  the  flesh  on  the  inside 
all  around.  Take  hold  with  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  or 
with  a  pair  of  pliers,  of  the  backbone,  and  press  the  skin 
downwards,  and  draw  the  body  out.  When  the  forelegs 
appear,  cut  the  bone  and  flesh  oft'  to  the  toe-nails,  and  pro- 
ceed to  perform  the  same  operation  with  the  hind  legs. 
Cover  the  skin  with  arsenic,  and  turn  it  back,  —  the  legs 
may  be  easily  turned  by  blowing  into  them  with  the 
breath.  Fill  the  body  with  bran,  and  support  the  head 
in  a  natural  position  with  cotton  until  dry.  Remove  the 
eyes  from  the  outside,  and  supply  their  place  with  artificial 


REPTILES.  67 

ones,  but  be  sure  to  place  them  in  the  proper  position. 
To  place  a  frog  or  toad  in  a  fancy  attitude,  place  a  ball  of 
grass  in  the  body,  and  wire  the  legs  as  described  in  small 
mammals. 

The  best  time  to  collect  toads  and  frogs  is  during  the 
breeding-season  in  spring.  The  salamanders  may  be  found 
under  stones  and  logs  in  damp  places  ;  also  some  species  in 
springs  and  clear  running  brooks,  under  stones.  They 
must  be  placed  in  alcohol  at  once. 

Lizards  and  alligators  may  be  skinned  in  the  following 
manner  :  Make  an  incision  the  whole  length  of  the  belly, 
and  skin  as  described  in  mammals,  leaving  the  skull  in. 
Do  not  try  to  remove  the  skin  from  the  top  of  the  head,  as 
it  will  be  likely  to  tear.  The  leg-bones  should  be  cleaned 
and  left  in.  The  reptile  is  then  mounted  in  the  same 
manner  as  a  mammal.  Lizards  and  small  alligators  may 
be  put  in  alcohol. 

The  eggs  of  frogs  and  of  salamanders  may  be  preserved 
in  alcohol.  The  eggs  of  lizards,  alligators,  and  turtles 
may  be  blown  in  the  same  manner  as  birds'  eggs ;  but  it  is 
well  to  place  some  in  alcohol  if  they  are  in  an  advanced 
state  of  incubation,  as  they  will  serve  to  illustrate  the 
growth  of  the  embryo.  But  the  egg  must  be  broken 
slightly  to  admit  the  alcohol  to  the  embryo. 

Last  winter  I  accidentally  made  a  discovery  relative  to 
the  preservation  of  fish  and  reptiles.  While  travelling  in 
Florida,  I  accidentally  lost  some  alcohol.  Being  unable 
to  replace  it,  and  having  some  reptiles  to  preserve,  I  put 
about  an  ounce  of  carbolic  acid  into  a  glass  jar,  with  half 
a  pound  of  arsenic  ;  to  this  I  added  a  quart  of  water,  —  I 
will  here  remark  that  the  waters  of  Florida  are  strongly 
impregnated  with  lime.  Into  this  composition  I  put  some 
reptiles  and  a  few  young  mammals.  After  two  weeks,  the 
jar  was  packed  with  others  in  a  box,  and  sent  North  by 
express. 


68  THE   NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

Upon  arriving  home,  and  opening  the  box,  I  found  that 
the  jar  had  become  broken,  and  the  liquid  had  escaped. 
The  smaller  reptiles,  etc.  I  placed  in  alcohol ;  but  a  rep- 
tile known  as  the  "  Glass  Snake  "  and  a  young  Rabbit 
were  left  out  for  want  of  room,  set  away  and  forgotten. 
Upon  looking  them  up  about  a  month  afterwards,  I  found, 
to  my  surprise,  that  the  "  snake "  had  dried  completely 
ivithout  shrinking  in  the  least,  and,  moreover,  it  retained  all 
the  peculiar  glossiness  of  life  !  The  Rabbit  had  not  shrunk 
any  more  than  if  it  had  been  in  strong  alcohol. 

Such  is  the  result  of  an  accident.  Whether  this  discov- 
ery will  prove  of  general  practical  use  in  preserving  reptiles 
is  yet  to  be  proven. 


CHAPTER    V. 

MISCELLANEOUS   COLLECTIONS. 

SECTION  I.  Crustacea.  —  But  few  of  these  interesting 
objects  of  natural  history  live  away  from  the  salt  water. 
The  Crawfishes  and  a  few  others  form  the  exceptions  to 
the  rule.  All  Lobsters,  Crabs,  Shrimps,  and  Crawfishes 
may  be  preserved  dry.  Wash  them  in  fresh  water,  and, 
if  the  specimen  is  large,  remove  the  flesh  as  much  as 
possible  by  lifting  the  shield,  or  upper  part  of  the  shell. 
The  specimens  should  be  placed  in  as  natural  an  attitude 
as  possible  to  dry.  When  dry  they  should  be  handled 
•with  care,  as  they  break  easily.  If  arsenic  is  put  into  the 
body,  it  will  help  to  preserve  it  and  keep  away  noxious 
insects. 

Small  Crabs,  Shrimps,  etc.  should  be  injected  with  car- 
bolic acid  and  dried  carefully.  Never  place  a  specimen  in 
the  sun  to  dry,  but  always  in  a  draught  of  air  in  the  shade. 
A  great  many  kinds  of  Shrimps  or  Sand-Fleas  may  be  col- 
lected from  under  sea-weeds  on  sandy  beaches. 

Collecting  Mollusks.  —  Many  shells  may  be  collected 
on  the  sea-shore  among  the  rocks  at  low  tide.  Some 
of  the  more  minuje  species  may  be  found  clinging  to  the 
sea-weed  that  grows  on  the  rocks.  These  require  delicate 
manipulation,  as  they  are  very  fragile ;  they  are  best  re- 
moved with  the  tweezers,  and  should  be  placed  in  wide- 
mouthed  bottles  containing  alcohol.  Some  species  of  cone- 
shaped,  univalve  shells  may  be  found  clinging  closely  to 
the  rocks.  They  should  be  seized  suddenly  with  the  hand, 
and,  before  the  animal  has  time  to  contract  itself,  —  which 
it  will  do  very  quickly,  and  then  it  adheres  so  closely  as 


70  THE  NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

to  render  its  separation  from  the  rock  without  injuring 
the  shell  extremely  difficult,  —  removed  with  a  sliding 
motion. 

Many  species  may  be  found  buried  in  the  mud  and  sand 
below  high-water  mark.  The  exact  locality  where  these 
are  hidden  may  be  determined  by  searching  for  their 
breathing-holes  on  the  surface  of  the  mud  or  sand  ;  then, 
by  carefully  removing  a  few  inches  of  the  soil,  the  shell 
may  be  detected.  Numerous  species  may  be  taken  in 
deep  water  by  dredging,  or  with  a  rake,  such  as  is  used  in 
gathering  oysters,  etc. 

A  great  many  shells  may  be  procured  just  as  they  are 
cast  on  shore  from  the  action  of  the  waves;  these  must 
be  washed  in  fresh  water  and  dried.  The  different  species 
of  smaller  fresh-water  shells  may  be  found  upon  rocks, 
aquatic  plants,  and  on  the  surface  of  the  mud.  They 
should  be  placed  in  alcohol.  The  larger  species  —  such 
as  the  mussels  —  may  be  taken  by  dredging.  Numerous 
shells  of  mussels  may  be  found  at  the  entrances  of  the 
holes  of  the  muskrats ;  of  these  the  collector  may  take  his 
choice,  as  many  of  them  are  in  excellent  condition  for  the 
cabinet. 

The  land  shells,  or  snails,  may  be  taken  from  the  differ- 
ent plants  upon  which  they  feed,  or  from  under  stones  or 
logs,  especially  in  damp  places.  The  smaller  species  should 
be  carefully  removed  with  tweezers,  as  they  are  very  fragile, 
and  placed  in  alcohol. 

Preserving  Shells.  —  It  is  well  to  preserve  in  alcohol 
numbers  of  all  species  of  shells  containing  the  animal.  To 
remove  the  contents  from  shells  that  are  to  be  dried  for 
the  cabinet,  boil  them  a  few  moments,  and  clean  them 
with  a  bent  pin  or  wire.  The  contents  of  the  different 
species  of  bivalves  may  be  removed  with  a  knife  without 
boiling,  as  by  this  method  the  shell  retains  its  color  much 
better.  The  bivalves  should  have  their  shells  closed  and 


MISCELLANEOUS   COLLECTIONS.  71 

tied  until  dry.  If  the  shells  of  mussels  have  a  chalky  ap- 
pearance, it  may  be  removed  by  immersing  the  specimen 
for  a  few  moments  in  a  bath  of  diluted  muriatic  acid.  All 
shells  should  be  carefully  washed  in  fresh  water  with  a 
tooth-brush. 

Never  varnish  a  shell ;  it  shows  bad  taste  to  try  to  im- 
prove upon  nature  in  this  way,  besides  injuring  the  speci- 
men for  scientific  use.  As  some  of  the  more  fragile  land 
shells  are  liable  to  crack  when  drying,  it  is  well  to  apply 
a  slight  coating  of  gum-arabic  dissolved  in  water.  This  at 
some  future  time  may  be  easily  removed.  There  are  also 
some  species  from  which  the  epidermis  is  liable  to  peel ;  to 
prevent  this,  Mr.  F.  W.  Putnam  informs  me  that  they 
should  be  immersed  in  oil  for  a  short  time. 

Worms.  —  Marine  worms  may  be  found  in  the  sand  or 
mud  and  under  stones.  They  should  be  kept  in  strong 
alcohol.  Earthworms,  Leeches,  etc.  must  also  be  kept  in 
alcohol. 

Many  species  of  marine  worms  may  be  found  in  the 
hulls  of  ships,  or  in  wood  that  has  been  immersed  in  salt 
water  for  some  time. 

Animal  Parasites.  —  Recently  in  this  country,  and  for 
some  time  in  Europe,  attention  has  been  directed  by  emi- 
nent naturalists  to  the  parasites  found  on  birds  and  other 
animals,  and  in  their  intestines.  These  should  be  placed  in 
alcohol.  The  parasites  from  each  bird  or  animal  should 
be  kept  separate,  in  small  phials,  with  the  name  of  the  bird 
or  animal  from  which  it  was  taken  attached,  also  the  date 
and  locality. 

The  Jelly-Fishes  may  be  found  in  deep  water  or  near  the 
shore  in  countless  numbers.  There  are  a  great  many  spe- 
cies. They  may  be  preserved  in  the  following  manner : 
After  catching  them  in  a  bucket,  pour  off  the  water,  and 
add  strong  alcohol,  a  little  at  a  time.  The  animal  will  give 
out  water  continually  during  this  operation,  and  alcohol 


72  THE  NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

should  be  added  until  it  dies,  when  the  water  will  cease 
flowing.  It  should  then  be  removed  from  this  solution 
and  placed  in  strong  alcohol,  where  it  must  be  kept 
permanently. 

Corals  —  which  generally  grow  at  some  distance  from 
the  shore,  and  sometimes  ha  deep  water  —  should  be  se- 
cured with  nets.  They  must  first  be  washed  in  fresh  water, 
then  dried  in  the  shade.  It  is  also  desirable  to  preserve 
specimens  in  alcohol. 

Sea-Anemones  are  found  attached  to  the  rocks  or  buried 
in  the  mud ;  they  should  be  plunged  in  strong  alcohol 
when  fully  expanded,  but  the  alcohol  should  afterwards  be 
changed,  as  they  give  oxit  large  quantities  of  water. 

Hydroids  and  Bryozoa.  —  Incrustations  on  the  rocks,  sea- 
weeds, and  delicate  tufts  found  growing  on  rocks,  etc., 
are  called  by  these  names.  They  may  be  dried  or  pre- 
served in  alcohol  like  the  Corals. 

Star-Fishes  may  be  found  among  the  rocks  at  low  tide. 
They  should  be  killed  by  immersing  in  alcohol  or  fresh 
water.  Some  species  should  be  preserved  in  alcohol,  where 
they  should  be  placed  in  as  natural  attitudes  as  possi- 
ble, as  when  they  become  rigid  it  is  impossible  to  alter 
the  position  of  the  arms.  They  may  be  dried  in  the 
shade  by  placing  them  in  natural  positions  upon  a  board. 
When  dead,  they  should  be  dried  instantly,  as  they  will 
decompose  in  a  few  hours  if  kept  in  a  damp  place. 

Sea-Urchins  may  be  taken  in  rocky  pools  at  low  water. 
They  may  also  be  found  under  the  sand  on  beaches,  from 
which  they  are  frequently  washed  by  the  waves.  They  may 
be  preserved  in  alcohol,  or  dried  like  the  Star-Fishes. 

Holothurias,  or  Sea-Cucumbers,  are  found  on  flats  or 
under  stones.  They  must  be  preserved  in  alcohol. 

Sponges  and  Seaweeds  should  be  dried  in  a  draught.  Very 
pretty  ornaments  are  made  of  the  sea-mosses  by  washing 
them  in  fresh  water,  and  spreading  upon  dampened  paper 


PREPARING   SKELETONS.  73 

with  a  fine  needle ;  the  glutinous  matter  contained  iu  the 
plants  will  cause  them  to  adhere  so  firmly  to  the  paper 
when  dried  and  pressed  as  to  look  like  a  very  fine  engrav- 
ing or  painting.  When  a  collection  of  these  are  executed 
by  a  skilful  and  artistic  hand,  and  bound  in  a  book,  they 
form  a  beautiful  and  interesting  volume.* 

SECTION  II.  Preparing  Skeletons.  —  I  will  give  the  meth- 
ods by  which  bones  may  be  cleaned.  To  clean  the  bones 
of  large  animals,  first  take  off  as  much  of  the  flesh  as  is 
possible  with  a  knife ;  then  put  them  in  slatted  boxes,  and 
place  the  boxes  in  a  running  stream,  or  between  tide-marks 
on  the  sea-shore.  The  boxes,  being  open,  will  allow  the 
entrance  of  Shrimps,  other  aquatic  animals,  and  insects, 
who  will  devour  the  meat,  while  the  water,  having  free 
passage  through,  will  perform  its  part.  When  well  cleaned, 
wash  them  in  warm  soap-suds,  and,  after  rinsing,  dry  in 
the  sun  and  air ;  this  will  tend  to  bleach  them. 

The  bones  of  smaller  animals  may  also  be  cleansed  in 
this  manner;  but  the  better  way  is  either  to  boil  them  until 
the  flesh  comes  off  easily,  or  to  put  them  into  water  that 
has  been  impregnated  with  chloride  of  lime ;  in  both  cases 
the  bones  will  have  to  be  cleaned  afterwards  with  a  knife 
and  a  stiff  brush ;  they  should  be  scraped  as  little  as 
possible.  If  kept  in  a  dry  place,  exposed  to  the  action 
of  the  air,  the  bones  will  bleach  constantly. 

Mounting  Skeletons.  —  To  mount  the  skeleton  of  a  bird, 
place  a  wire  through  the  hole  occupied  by  the  spinal  cord, 
and  fasten  it  in  the  skull ;  this  will  hold  the  vertebra  of 

*  As  there  is  not  a  general  interest  manifested  in  the  objects  alluded  to 
in  this  section,  I  have  given  but  few  directions  for  collecting  and  preserv- 
ing them,  but  such  as  will,  perhaps,  satisfy  the  general  collector.  Those 
who  are  particularly  interested  in  them  will  find  in  the  pages  of  the  vari- 
ous numbers  of  the  "American  Naturalist"  more  particular  directions  for 
collecting  and  preserving  each  branch  of  this  truly  interesting  class  of 
animals,  written  by  the  most  competent  and  well-informed  men  in  our 
country 

4 


74  THE  NATURALIST'S   GUIDE. 

the  neck  and  tail,  and  other  bones  of  the  back,  in  position. 
Next,  force  a  wire  through  the  hollows  in  the  bones  of  the 
tarsi,  tibia,  and  hips  (Plate  X.  k,  y,  j)  by  drilling  a  hole 
through  each  end;  now  fasten  this  wire  to  the  broad  bone 
that  covers  the  back  (m),  by  drilling  a  hole  through  on 
each  side  and  bending  the  wire  down  firmly  (x),  first  over 
then  under  the  bone,  where  it  meets  the  end  of  the  oppo- 
site wire ;  twist  the  ends  together.  The  wing,  breast,  and 
other  bones  are  now  fastened  on  by  drilling  holes  trans- 
versely through  the  ends  and  running  wires  through  and 
twisting  them  (r,  d). 

The  skeletons  of  mammals,  fishes,  etc.  are  mounted  in 
much  the  same  manner.  If  large,  they  are  supported  on 
iron  rods.  The  wire  used  must  be  composed  of  brass  or 
copper,  as  iron  corrodes  easily.  The  fleshy  or  cartilaginous 
parts  of  the  feet  should  be  removed,  but  not  the  outer  or 
horny  portion  of  the  bill 


PREPARING    SKELETONS. 


75 


CHAPTER    VI. 

COLLECTING   AND   PRESERVING  EGGS. 

No  portion  of  natural  history  has  received  more  atten- 
tion than  the  science  of  Oology ;  yet  in  very  many  cases 
collections  of  eggs  are  made  in  such  a  careless  manner  as 
to  render  them  worthless,  except  as  ornaments,  on  account 
of  the  collector's  not  paying  sufficient  attention  to  identifi- 
cation and  authentication. 

Let  identification,  then,  be  the  collector's  first  care ;  let 
him  make  it  a  rule  never  to  take  an  egg  or  nest  until 
he  can  surely  tell  to  what  species  it  belongs.  The  best 
method  of  learning  the  name  of  the  owner  of  the  nest  is  to 
shoot  her,  especially  by  collectors  who  have  had  but  little 
experience  in  studying  birds;  while  the  more  practised 
ornithologist  can  generally  tell  at  a  glance,  if  the  bird  is 
large,  what  it  is.  While  collecting  the  eggs  of  the  War- 
blers and  other  small  birds,  the  most  experienced  oblogist 
should  never  neglect  to  shoot  the  bird,  even  if  he  has  to 
watch  for  it  a  long  time. 

Nests  and  eggs  should  never  be  labelled  on  the  author- 
ity of  a  person  who  has  found  them,  and  only  seen  the 
birds,  but  who  is  in  a  comparative  degree  unacquainted 
with  them.  The  nest  should  be  seen  in  situ,  and  the  bird 
identified.  I  have  known  a  great  many  errors  to  arise  from 
this  source. 

Commence  early  in  spring  to  look  for  the  nests  of  the 
rapacious  birds,  and  continue  the  search  for  these  and 
other  nests  until  late  in  summer.  I  know  of  no  rule  to  be 
followed  in  finding  nests.  Search  long  and  diligently  in 
every  locality  frequented  by  birds ;  and  watch  them  while 


COLLECTING   AND   PRESERVING   EGGS.  77 

building.  Place  straw,  hay,  cotton,  hemp,  or  any  of  the 
materials  that  birds  use  in  constructing  their  nests,  in 
an  exposed  situation  in  a  swamp  or  wood,  then  by  watch- 
ing the  birds  when  they  come  to  take  it,  and  following 
them,  many  nests  will  be  found  that  would  otherwise 
escape  notice. 

To  remove  the  contents  of  an  egg,  drill  a  small  hole 
in  one  side  with  a  drill  made  for  this  purpose  (Plate  I. 
Figs.  5,  6) ;  two  sizes  of  these  drills  will  be  required.  Now, 
with  the  blow-pipe  —  of  which  two  sizes  are  also  needed, 
(Fig.  7)  —  applied  to  the  lips,  force  a  small  stream  of  air 
into  the  hole;  this  will  cause  the  contents,  if  fresh,  to 
escape  at  the  (me  hole.  To  prevent  breakage  while  drill- 
ing the  eggs  of  the  Humming-Birds,  or  other  small  birds,  it 
is  well  to  cover  the  outer  surface  with  thin  paper,  gummed 
securely  on,  and  dried. 

To  remove  the  contents  of  an  egg  that  has  the  embryo 
partially  developed,  drill  as  before,  only  a  larger  hole  is 
necessary ;  then  with  a  small  hook  (Fig.  8)  remove  the 
embryo  in  small  pieces ;  after  which  introduce  water  with 
the  blow-pipe  to  rinse  the  interior  of  the  egg.  If  the  con- 
tents are  allowed  to  remain  in  a  few  days,  it  will  facilitate 
their  removal.  If  the  egg  is  covered  with  paper,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Humming-Birds,  the  edges  of  the  hole  will  be 
less  liable  to  be  injured  by  the  shell  being  broken  while 
using  the  hook. 

Never  make  holes  at  the  end  of  the  egg,  or  on  opposite 
sides ,  but  if  this  old  method  is  still  preferred,  ^hey  should 
both  be  made  on  one  side,  with  the  larger  one  nearest  the 
greater  end. 

The  best  method  that  I  know  of  for  authenticating  eggs 
is  the  following  :  After  the  egg  is  blown,  place  a  number, 
written  with  ink,  upon  it,  corresponding  with  one  placed 
in  the  nest,  then  draw  a  line  beneath  it ;  under  this  line 
place  the  number  of  the  egg  in  the  nest :  thus  ®  would 


78 


NATURALIST'S    GUIDE. 


mean  that  the  nest  is  No.  29,  and  the  egg  is  the  No.  4  of 
that  nest;  both  of  these,  numbers  will  refer  to  a  book, 
where  all  the  particulars  of  the  finding  of  the  nest,  the 
locality,  measurements  of  the  nest,  eggs,  etc.  in  inches, 
are  recorded. 

The  method  of  preparing  a  book  like  that  referred  to 
above  may  be  seen  in  the  following  specimen  :  — 


I 

I 

III 

IP 


"ill 
4*1 

111 


COLLECTING   AND   PRESERVING   EGGS.  79 

The  measurements  of  an  egg  are  taken  with  the  dividers 
in  hundredths  of  an  inch.  The  number  is  attached  to  the 
nest.  Nests,  if  composed  of  loose  materials,  must  be  kept 
in  boxes,  separated  from  each  other ;  if  lined  with  feathers, 
benzine  should  frequently  be  applied,  to  prevent  their  being 
attacked  by  moths. 


APPENDIX. 

CHAPTER  I. 

COLLECTING   AND   PRESERVING   BIRDS. 

SECTION  I.  How  to  collect. —  First,  let  me  say  a  few 
words  to  the  young  Naturalist.  When  I  last  appeared 
before  him  as  an  adviser,  I  rather  intimated,  that 
members  of  our  brotherhood  were  looked  upon  by  the 
world  at  largo  as  slightly  insane,  or  at  best,  as  very 
foolish.  This  was  much  more  the  case  then,  than  it 
is  to-day.  Now,  the  tables  are  turned,  as  it  were  ;  the 
ecientist  need  no  longer  dread  the  scoffs  of  the  "  prac- 
tical men,"  for  the  knowledge  which  he  possesses  is  the 
"  open  sesame  "  for  him  to  all  ranks  of  society.  The 
tide  of  popular  opinion  now  flows  strongly  towards 
the  gate  of  learning  opened  by  modern  zoological 
science,  and  all  are  eager  to  listen  to  what  may  fall 
from  the  lips  of  our  eminent  professors. 

Thus,  many  obstacles  which  were  formerly  thrown  in 
the  path  of  the  young  and  enthusiastic  collector,  are 
removed.  A  word  to  parents  or  guardians,  however, 
may  not  come  amiss  just  here.  I  have  often  been 
asked,  "  Do  you  think  the  study  of  Natural  History 
will  prove  beneficial  to  my  son  ?  "  My  answer  is, 
"  Most  certainly  it  is  beneficial ;  but,  aside  from  direct 
benefits,  which  are,  perhaps,  too  numerous  to  mention, 
there  is  one  important  point  which  ought  to  be  kept 
in  mind.  While  your  son  is  engaged  in  this  enchant- 
ing study,  his  mind  will  be  so  fully  occupied  with  the 

81 


THE  NATURALIST'S  GUIDE. 

multiplicity  of  objects  which  are  constantly  inviting 
his  earnest  attention,  that  he  will  find  but  little  time 
to  devote  to  mischief.  Young  and  active  brains  will 
find  occupation;  the  old  hymn  wisely  says,  'Satan 
finds  some  mischief  still  for  idle  hands  to  do.'  Leav- 
ing his  Satanic  Majesty  out  of  the  question,  it  is  best, 
as  all  will  agree,  to  allow  our  children  to  occupy  them- 
selves, during  leisure  hours,  in  some  amusing  recrea- 
tion. .  What  can  be  better  than  the  enjoyable  and 
health-giving  exercise  connected  with  the  study  of 
Natural  History  ?  " 

So  much  for  moralizing;  now  for  the  subject.  I 
want  to  reiterate  what  I  have  said  in  the  latter  portion 
of  the  third  paragraph,  page  4.  No  matter  how  com- 
mon a  desirable  species  may  be,  when  you  meet  with  it 
in  a  locality  with  which  you  are  unacquainted,  proceed 
at  once  to  collect  all  you  want.  I  have  known  of  many 
instances  where  delay,  in  such  cases,  was  dangerous, 
the  birds  having  disappeared  in  a  single  night. 

I  have  somewhere  seen  a  remark  made  by  a  distin- 
guished Naturalist  to  the  effect,  that  any  one  could 
collect  birds  after  a  short  experience.  This  I  deny, 
and  will  further  state,  that  not  one  person  in  fifty  will 
ever  make  a  good  collector,  for  the  gathering  together 
of  birds  is  a  high  art.  In  order  to  become  an  emi- 
nently successful  collector,  many  acquirements  are 
necessary.  A  quick  eye,  a  good  ear,  perfect  coolness, 
accompanied  with  ready  action  in  emergency,  pa- 
tience in  an  extreme  degree,  a  tenacious  memory,  and 
an  utter  disregard  of  such  minor  troubles  as  wet  feet, 
scratches  from  thorns,  stings  from  insects,  etc.,  arc 
among  the  requisites  in  the  make-up  of  a  first-class 
collector. 

But  the  tyro  must  not  become  discouraged  by  read- 
ing this  array,  for  many  of  these  attributes,  if  not  all 


APPENDIX.  06 

of  them,  can  be  acquired  by  practice.  Study  well  the 
habits  of  each  and  every  species  which  comes  under 
your  eye.  Note  carefully  song  or  motion,  and  learn  to 
even  distinguish  the  various  Sparrows  and  "Warblers  by 
the  chirp  alone.  Although  this  is  somewhat  difficult, 
it  can  be  done,  for  I  know  of  several  who  do  it. 
No  two  species  possess  habits  which  are  exactly  alike 
in  every  respect,  and  the  nicer  points  of  distinction 
can  be  learned  so  that  the  flirt  of  a  tail  or  the  droop 
of  a  wing  will  often  betray  a  rare  bird,  even  if  it  be  sur- 
rounded by  hundreds  of  more  common  species  which 
are  quite  similar  in  appearance. 

This  art  may  be  carried  to  such  perfection,  that  it 
appears  like  something  marvelous,  to  one  who  is  not 
skilled  in  it,  to  see  how  readily  certain  obscurely-col- 
ored species  may  be  detected,  even  at  a  long  distance, 
from  among  others  having  similar  form  and  markings. 
I  have  frequently  known  two  experts,  when  collecting 
in  company,  to  shoot,  both  at  one  instant,  at  the  same 
bird  the  moment  it  appeared,  although  neither  was 
aware  that  the  other  saw  it.  By  learning  to  distinguish 
all  species  instantly,  the  ornithologist  is  spared  the 
trouble  and  pain  of  shooting  birds  which  are  too  com- 
mon to  be  of  any  value  to  him. 

In  addition  to  the  young,  in  all  stages  of  plumage, 
moulting  birds  should  also  be  taken,  as  many  valuable 
facts  can  be  learned  by  studying  the  various  changes 
undergone  at  this  stage. 

More  recent  improvements  in  breach-loading  guns, 
now  render  them  desirable  ;  in  fact,  a  muzzle-loader  is 
scarcely  to  be  thought  of  for  a  collector.  I  do  not 
here  recommend  any  particular  make,  but  will  simply 
state,  that  I  am  at  present  using  a  Parker  gun,  and 
find  that  it  works  like  a  charm.  In  collecting  little 
birds,  however,  I  use  a  gun  of  an  exceedingly  small 


84 


THE   NATURALISTS    GUIDE. 


calibre,  thirty-eight  hundredths  of  an  inch  being  large 
enough.  With  a  proper  charge,  which  can  be  ascer- 
tained by  experiment,  using  equal  bulk  of  powder  and 
shot,  birds  as  large  as  Blue-birds  can  be  killed  at  twenty 
yards.  Besides  being  more  economical,  the  specimens 
r collected  with  this  gun  are  better  shot  than  with  a 
heavier  one.  The  report  is  lighter,  and  does  not 
frighten  the  birds  as  much. 

I  do  not  now  recommend  Ely's  wire  cartridges. 
For  large  birds,  use  a  rifle  with  a  small  calibre.  This 
will  kill  farther,  and  will  usually  insure  good  speci- 
mens. 

In  addition  to  the  advice  given  on  page  7,  first  par- 
agraph, I  would  remark,  that  unless  the  shot-holes  in 
the  abdomen  are  found  and  carefully  plugged,  the  es- 
caping fluids,  being  often  exceedingly  acrid,  are  quite 
apt  to  soften  the  skin  in  a  short  time.  I  have  known 
the  epidermis  to  slip  on  the  abdomen  before  the  spec- 
imen was  cold,  from  this  cause. 

In  picking  up  a  Heron,  Duck,  or  "Wader  which  has 
fallen  into  muddy  water  or  ooze,  care  should  be  used 
to  take  it  by  the  bill,  as  then  a  greater  portion  of  the 
filth  Avill  slide  off  the  oily  feathers,  which  process  may 
be  facilitated  by  gently  shaking  the  bird.  I  have 
seen  white  herons  completely  ruined  by  collectors  who 
took  them  out  of  the  mud  by  the  feet,  thereby  allow- 
ing the  dirt  to  slip  under  the  immaculate  feathers. 

Allow  me  once  more  to  repeat  the  caution  about 
handling  guns.  A  good  breach-loader,  if  properly 
handled,  is  perfectly  safe :  but  never  point  your  gun  at 
a  human  being  (there  is  no  necessity  of  getting  in  front 
of  the  muzzle  yourself  when  it  is  loaded),  and  there 
is  no  danger  to  any  one.  In  shooting,  the  gun  should 
never  be  brought  to  a  full  cock  until  you  are  about  to 
fire.  Practice  will  make  perfect  in  this  respect.  I  can 


APPENDIX. 


85 


cock  my  gun,  even  Avhen  Snipe  shooting,  after  the  bird 
rises,  and  kill ;  further,  I  can  shoot  two  Quail  which 
both  jump  at  once  and  fly  in  opposite  directions,  cock- 
ing each  barrel  for  each  bird  after  they  are  a- wing. 
Almost  any  one  can  do  this  with  practice. 

Birdlime  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  securing 
birds,  especially  during  the  breeding  season.  A  small 
twig  is  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  this  exceedingly 
viscid  substance,  and  placed  in  such  a  position  that 
the  bird  will  alight  on  it  when  she  goes  to  the  nest. 
The  limed  twig  should  be  lightly  poised,  so  that  it  will 
fall  a  short  distance,  as  this  will  cause  the  bird  to 
stretch  out  its  wings,  and  thus  become  entangled  more 
firmly.  The  lime  should  be  spread  with  the  fingers, 
which  should  be  first  wet,  to  prevent  its  sticking  to 
them.  I  have  also  used  various  traps,  snares,  etc.,  to 
advantage  in  capturing  birds.  The  blow-gun  is  also 
very  good,  although  it  is  somewhat  uncertain,  as  pro- 
jectiles fired  from  it  are  apt  to  glance  from  twigs, 
leaves,  etc. 

SECTION  II.  How  to  prepare  Specimens,  Instru- 
ments, Materials,  etc. 

To  the  instruments  mentioned  add  three  or  four 
sizes  of  awls,  made  long  for  boring  the  feet  and  tarsi 
of  dried  skins. 

I  have  now  given  up  the  use  of  arsenic,  as  being 
very  poisonous,  for  I  am  convinced  that  my  health 
has  suffered  from  using  it.  I  have,  however,  discov- 
ered another  substance  which  I  think  far  superior  to 
arsenic.  This  is  a  product  of  coal-tar,  and  resembles 
carbolic  acid  in  its  effect  as  a  preservative.  The  odor 
is  also  disagreeable  to  insects,  and  specimens  preserved 
with  it  are  free  from  their  attacks.  This  new  preserv- 
ative is  in  the  form  of  a  powder,  and  is  not  a  danger- 
ous poison. 


86  THE  NATURALIST'S  GUIDE. 

I  will  once  again  refer  to  the  poisonous  gases  engen- 
dered by  birds  in  progress  of  decay.  I  have  been 
surprised  to  learn  from  competent  physicians,  that 
little  or  nothing  is  known  of  the  baneful  effects  of 
this  gas.  Several  years  ago,  when  suffering  from  the 
effects  of  it,  I  visited  an  old  physician,  and  described 
the  symptoms  to  him.  I  was  then  ignorant  of  the 
cause  of  my  illness,  so  was  not  surprised  when  he  in- 
formed me  that  I  had  been  poisoned  with  ivy  (Rhus 
toxicodendron).  His  treatment  of  the  difficulty,  while 
laboring  under  this  mistake,  had  little  or  no  effect.  I 
then  consulted  another  doctor,  who,  although  well 
acquainted  with  my  pursuits,  also  decided  that  I  was 
poisoned  with  some  vegetable  substance.  His  treat- 
ment also  failing,  and  being  then  convinced  that  both 
were  wrong,  I  discovered  the  cause  for  myself,  and  the 
remedy,  which  is  as  stated  on  page  14. 

I  now  recommend  the  wide,  thick  shoes  called  army 
shoes  for  collectors ;  they  are  doubtless,  the  best  in 
summer;  in  winter  either  leather  or  rubber  boots,  ac- 
cording to  the  season. 

I  now  use  forms  slightly  different  from  those  men- 
tioned on  page  18  ;  these  are  strips  of  tin,  rolled  up  in 
half-cylinders,  resembling  a  single  section  of  those 
figured  in  Plate  IX.,  Figs.  1  and  '2. 

SECTION  III.  Measuring,  Skinning,  and  Preserv- 
ing Birds. —  In  skinning  small  birds,  time  may  be 
saved  by  breaking  off  the  end  of  the  tibia ;  then,  by 
stripping  downwards  and  twisting,  the  muscles  may 
be  all  cut  at  once.  The  brains  may  be  removed 
much  more  easily  by  three  cuts;  one  down  through 
the  base  of  the  skull,  as  described,  and  two  on  each 
side,  beneath  the  skull;  these  last  meet  under  the  eye 
sockets;  thus  a  triangular  piece  is  removed,  to  which 
the  brains  adhere. 


APPENDIX.  87 

In  large  birds,  like  Eagles,  I  now  skin  over  the  met- 
acarpus (beyond  the  carpal  joint).  This  may  readily 
be  accomplished  with  practice.  Indeed,  every  bone  in 
the  wing,  including  the  phalanges,  may  be  removed 
from  the  inside.  I  have,  also,  frequently  performed 
the  somewhat  difficult  feat  of  removing  every  bone  in 
the  body,  including  those  of  the  bill  and  claws,  leav- 
ing only  the  horny  .covering  ;  thus  securing  a  perfect 
skeleton,  as  well  as  a  mounted  specimen. 

I  do  not  now  tie  the  bones,  as  mentioned  on  page  23, 
but  simply  place  the  wings  in  position. 

When  placing  the  cotton  in  the  neck,  as  described 
on  page  24,  be  sure  that  the  end  of  the  roll  enters 
the  cavity  of  the  skull ;  this  will  make  the  neck  more 
solid. 

I  now  sew  through  a  pinch  of  skin  from  the  out- 
side, when  fastening  the  wings  in  position,  by  the  sides 
and  over  the  quill,  not  through  it.  Thus  the  thread 
is  tied  outside. 

In  filling  small  birds,  I  now  first  sew  the  wings,  and 
then  place  neck  and  body  in  together.  This  saves  time, 
and  makes  a  better  skin,  it  being  stronger. 

Too  much  care  cannot  be  exercised  in  placing  the 
skin  in  the  form.  To  make  a  perfect  specimen,  every 
feather  should  be  carefully  put  in  place,  and  smoothly 
arranged.  For  drying,  place  the  skin  in  a  closet,  01 
some  place  where  it  will  not  be  disturbed  by  the  slight 
est  breath  of  wind.  I  now  recommend  writing  date, 
locality,  and  sex,  on  labels  attached  to  the  skin ;  also, 
in  case  of  rare  birds,  color  of  feet,  bill,  eyes,  etc. 

In  preparing  the  wings  of  large  birds,  like  Hawks, 
first  fill  the  neck  and  body,  using  grass  or  excelsior  for 
the  latter.  Then,  after  placing  the  wing  in  position 
without  drawing  the  forearm  within  the  skin,  sew  at 


88  THE  NATURALIST'S  GUIDE. 

the  sides  as  in  small  birds;  and  also  at  the  carpal 
joints. 

Ducks  are  treated  in  the  same  manner  ;  but  always 
turn  the  head  on  the  back,  and  stitch  the  feet  together. 
Open  on  the  back  of  the  head,  instead  of  on  the  throat, 
when  skinning. 

I  do  not  .now  bend  the  necks  of  Herons,  but  simply 
lay  the  head  on  the  back,  stitch  the  legs  together  at 
the  tarsal  joint,  bend  the  legs  forward  outwardly,  then 
fasten  the  toes  to  the  wing.  This  gives  the  skin  a 
compact  form. 

Some  three  or  four  summers  since,  I  was  accident- 
ally left  on  a  small  islet  lying  in  the  midst  of  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence.  As  this  lonely  rock  was  swarming 
with  birds,  all  of  which  were  desirable,  I  soon  collected 
a  large  quantity ;  but,  unfortunately,  when  I  visited  the 
rock  I  only  intended  remaining  a  few  hours,  so  did 
not  go  provided  with  arsenic  for  making  skins.  This 
omission,  although  I  then  considered  it  a  misfortune, 
proved  of  great  benefit  to  me,  as  it  resulted  in  a  dis- 
covery which  has  since  become  invaluable.  Having 
skinned  a  large  quantity  of  birds,  and  as  the  vessel 
which  was  to  take  me  off  did  not  arrive,  I  was  at  loss 
to  know  what  to  do  with  them.  But,  as  necessity  w 
the  mother  of  invention,  it  occurred  to  me  that  I 
might  salt  them,  and  thus  carry  them  home.  There 
was  a  light-house  on  the  rock,  and  the  keeper  had  a 
supply  of  salt;  I  procured  some,  and  rubbed  it  on  the 
skins.  These  were  afterwards  simply  packed  in  bar- 
rels, and  sent  to  Massachusetts.  When  I  came  to  use 
them,  I  found  them  in  perfect  condition,  only  requir- 
ing to  be  washed,  when  they  came  out  like  fresh  skins. 

I  have  since  applied  this  method  to  all  large  skins, 
and  find  that  it  proves  effective,  even  in  Florida.  The 
skin  is  removed  as  usual,  and  simply  salted;  the  salt 


APPENDIX.  89 

being  applied  as  if  it  were  arsenic  or  any  other  pre- 
servative. The  skin  is  then  folded  neatly,  and  wrapped 
in  paper.  "When  ready  for  use,  it  is  put  into  the  damp- 
ing box  for  a  day  or  two;  then  the  inside  is  care- 
fully washed,  the  preservative  is  applied,  and  the 
bird  is  mounted. 

SECTION  IV.  Mounting  Specimens. —  I  do  not  now 
fill  the  neck  with  -any  loose  substance.  The  body  is 
made  as  before;  then  a  wire  is  pushed  through  it 
lengthwise,  firmly  clinched  behind,  and  protruding  in 
front  as  long  as  the  neck,  skull,  and  one  half  the  bill- 
This  is  wound  with  hemp  or  cotton  as  far  as  the  skull, 
care  being  taken  to  make  it  somewhat  smaller  than 
the  neck.  This  is  coated  with  a  layer  of  clay,  mixed 
to  the  consistency  of  putty,  well  kneaded,  making  it 
the  size  of  the  natural  neck,  excepting  that  it  should  be 
larger  at  the  base.  The  brain  and  eye  cavities,  as  well 
as  the  space  occupied  by  the  tongue,  should  also  be 
filled  with  clay;  by  using  this  pliable  substance,  the 
neck  and  head  can  be  placed  in  any  position.  Well- 
kneaded  clay  becomes  as  hard  as  stone,  when  dry ;  it 
also  possesses  the  advantage  of  not  shrinking.  Clay  is 
especially  useful  in  mounting  dried  skins.  I  also  fill 
the  tibiae  of  Hawks,  Herons,  etc.,  with  it. 

Instead  of  pinning  up  the  wings,  as  described  on 
page  39,  they  should  be  wired.  Cut  wires  of  a  suitable 
length,  of  a  smaller  size  than  is  used  for  the  legs,  and 
pass  them  through  the  wings,  entering  them  just  below 
the  carpal  joint,  on  the  under  side ;  thus  on  through 
the  body,  clinching  as  described  for  the  legs.  The 
outer  end  of  the  wire  is  now  passed  through  a  small 
opening  which  occurs  in  the  carpus  (seen  near  F,  Plate 
X.),  brought  out  above,  and  bent  firmly  down.  This 
wire  will  always  be  concealed  from  above  by  the  spu- 
rious wing  which  lies  over  it. 


90  THE  NATURALIST'S  GUIDE. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  find  this  opening  in  the 
carpus,  for  if  it  be  passed  between  the  phalanges  it 
will  separate  them  and  the  quills. 

In  raising  the  wings,  this  method  of  wiring  will  be 
found  of  great  advantage ;  the  secondaries,  etc.,  should, 
however,  be  kept  in  place  by  supplementary  wires,  un- 
til dry,  as  before  described.  In  large  birds,  supply  the 
place  of  the  wing  muscles  with  clay. 

I  do  not  now  recommend  opening  Ducks,  or  any 
other  birds,  under  the  wings;  but  if  any  grease  re- 
mains on  the  skin,  coat  it  with  soapstone  dust,  and  it 
will  never  give  trouble. 


NOTE  TO  SEC.  II.  Another  instrument  which  I  now 
consider  necessary  in  mounting  and  making  skins  is  a 
scissor-like  tool,  having  long  flat  blades  or  points, 
called  a  stuffer,  and  which  may  beobta  ined  of  almost 
any  dealer  in  naturalists'  supplies. 

I  have  now  not  only  given  up  the  use  of  arsenic  but 
have  also  abandoned  the  use  of  napthaleine,  the  product 
obtained  from  coal  tar,  of  which  I  speak  in  the 
appendix  to  this  chapter.  In  place  of  this  I  have 
succeeded  in  manufacturing  a  Preservative  of  several 
ingredients,  which,  besides  not  being  a  poison,  is  a 
deodorizer,  completely  absorbs  oil  from  greasy  skins, 
preserves  them  better  than  arsenic,  and  is  equally 
good  in  preventing  insect  attacks. 

As  will  be  seen  upon  referring  to  the  next  section,  a 
new  method  of  skin-making  renders  the  use  of  tin 
forms  unnecessary,  or,  in  fact,  any  other  forms. 

NOTE  TO  SEC.  III.  A  JVeto  Method  of  Skin-Making. 
I  have,  in  the  last  few  years,  considerably  changed  my 
method  of  making  skins,  and  now  proceed  as  follows  : 


APPENDIX.  91 

The  skin  is  removed  as  directed,  but  before  it  is  turned 
a  piece  of  wire,  varying  in  thickness  according  to  the 
size  of  the  bird,  is  twisted  around  each  wing  bone, 
connecting  them  together,  but  they  should  be  kept  as 
far  apart  as  they  were  when  attached  to  the  body. 
The  skin  is  now  turned  as  before ;  no  sewing  is  now 
done  to  the  wings,  as  the  wire  will  keep  them  in  place. 
Place  the  cotton  in  the  skin  in  one  piece,  as  directed, 
taking  care  that  the  wing  bones  lie  parallel  with  the 
body,  for  if  they  cross  one  another  the  wings  will  not 
set  well.  Sew  up  the  orifice,  smooth  the  feathers,  and 
see  that  the  wings  lie  according  to  directions  given 
previously.  A  piece  of  cotton  sufficiently  large  to 
envelope  the  skin  is  now  split  into  very  thin  layers,  the 
skin  placed  on  one  of  these,  and  wrapped  in  it  by  draw- 
ing first  one  side,  then  the  other,  over  the  bird,  thus 
covering  every  part,  even  the  head.  Skins  prepared 
in  this  way  are  simply  laid  one  side  upon  any  level 
surface  until  dry,  when  the  wrapping  may  be  removed ; 
or,  if  the  skin  is  to  be  packed  for  transportation,  a 
thicker  layer  of  cotton  is  added.  The  cotton  which  is 
used  for  this  purpose  is  of  a  nice  grade,  and  is  adver- 
tised in  our  supply  catalogue. 

Large  birds  are  treated  in  the  same  manner,  and  the 
necks  as  well  as  the  legs  of  all  birds  should  be  kept 
straight,  in  as  natural  a  position  as  is  possible.  The  skins 
of  ducks  should  be  placed  on  their  breasts,  as  more 
characteristic  colors  are  to  be  seen  above. 

Salted  skins  should  not  be  kept  for  more  than  a  year 
without  making  over,  or  mounting,  and  the  feathers 
should  be  kept  as  smooth  as  possible. 

NOTE  TO  SEC.  IV.  Of  all  the  methods  of  mount- 
ing which  I  have  practised,  I  prefer  the  one  now  to  be 
described :  No  hard  body  is  made,  but  the  cotton  is 
wound  around  the  neck  wire  as  mentioned  in  the 


92  THE  NATURALIST'S  GUIDE. 

appendix;  placed  in  the  skin,  leaving  the  lower  end 
protruding  as  far  back  as  the  root  of  the  tail.  Wires 
are  fastened  in  the  wings  as  directed  in  the  preceding 
instructions,  and  the  ends  which  protrude  into  the  body 
are  wrapped  firmly  about  the  neck  wire ;  next  the  leg 
wires  are  pushed  in  and  also  wrapped  around  the  other 
wires ;  after  which  a  tail  wire  is  also  fastened  on.  The 
space  around  these  wires  is  now  packed  with  cotton  to 
the  natural  size  of  the  bird,  care  being  used  to  place 
the  cotton  in  layers,  not  in  bunches ;  sew  up  the  orifice, 
mould  the  bird  into  form  somewhat,  and  place  it  on  a 
stand,  where  it  can  be  finished  as  previously  directed. 
In  using  this  method,  smaller  wires  can  be  taken,  as  the 
body  is  not  as  heavy  as  when  excelsior  is  used. 


CHAPTER  II. 

COLLECTING  AND   PRESERVING   MAMMALS. 

SECTION  I.  Collecting. —  A  good  way  to  capture 
small  Mammals  in  an  unsettled  section  of  the  coun- 
try, is,  to  dig  a  pit,  which  may  be  partly  filled  with 
water.  A  great  many  of  the  smaller  Rodents,  as  well 
as  Shrews,  Moles,  etc.,  will  fall  into  this  during  the 
night.  I  have  practiced  this  with  success  while  in 
Florida. 

SECTION  II.  Skinning. —  I  now  say  that  the  tails 
of  both  skunks  and  musk-rats  may  be  skinned  in  the 
ordinary  way :  i.  e.,  stripped  out. 

My  method  of  skinning  Mammals  has  changed 
somewhat.  Only  small  Mammals  are  to  be  skinned  as 
described,  and  the  following  exceptions  are  to  be  made : 
Do  not  leave  any  bones  in  the  skin ;  I  even  remove 
the  bones  of  the  claws,  if  I  wish  to  mount  the  skel- 
eton. This  can  easily  be  accomplished,  with  practice, 
for  the  horny  covering  of  the  claws  will  come  off  read- 
ily, especially  if  they  be  split  on  the  under  side.  Al- 
ways remove  the  skull. 

To  make  a  skin  of  small  Mammals,  fill  it  with  cot- 
ton, and  proceed  as  directed.  Label  the  skull,  or,  what 
is  better,  attach  it  to  the  skin.  This  filling  should 
only  be  used  when  a  permanent  skin  is  needed  for  the 
cabinet.  If  it  is  to  be  mounted  at  some  future  time, 
simply  coat  the  skin  with  salt,  and  either  wrap  it  in 
paper,  or  pack  in  a  box  by  itself. 

In  skinning  large  Mammals,  the  crosscut  should  bo 
continued  to  the  foot,  and  all  the  bones  removed. 


94  THE  NATURALIST'S  GUIDE. 

SECTION  III.  Mounting  Mammals. —  There  is  no 
part  of  this  \vork  wherein  I  have  made  so  much  im- 
provement as  in  the  present  section. 

For  many  years  I  have  endeavored  to  find  some 
method  by  which  Mammals  could  be  mounted,  and 
still  retain  the  life-like  fullness  of  the  muscles,  espe- 
cially those  in  the  region  of  the  head.  In  order  to  ac- 
complish this,  I  knew  that  I  must  fill  the  parts  with 
some  substance  which  would  not  shrink  upon  drying, 
and  yet  be  readily  moulded.  Happily  I  have  found 
two  materials  which  admirably  answer  the  purpose, 
viz.,  clay  and  plaster. 

In  mounting  very  small  Mammals,  either  supply  the 
place  of  the  muscles  of  the  skull  with  plaster,  or  make 
a  cast  of  the  entire  head,  taking  care  in  both  cases  to 
insert  a  wire  so  that  it  shall  protrude  out  of  the  back 
of  the  occiput.  Fill  the  legs  with  clay,  place  the 
skull  or  cast  in  position,  then  fill  the  neck  with  clay, 
and  proceed  as  before  directed,  only  using  clay  in  place 
of  bran.  It  must  be  remembered  that  Mammal  mount- 
ing is  extremely  difficult,  and  that  it  requires  long  prac- 
tice to*  acquire  anything  like  perfection ;  yet,  if  com- 
plete measurements  have  been  taken,  and  the  pupil  is 
familiar  with  the  subject,  he  will  learn,  although  nec- 
essarily more  slowly  than  in  mounting  birds. 

I  have  made  this  subject  a  life-study,  and  have  yet 
to  learn  a  better  method,  although  I  think  lam  famil- 
iar with  all  the  various  styles  of  Mammal  mounting 
practised  by  others.  At  the  risk  of  being  considered 
egotistical,  I  will  say,  that,  with  very  feiu  exceptions,  f 
have  never  seen  a  Mammal  mounted  well  that  was 
done  in  any  other  way. 

The  preceding  will  only  answer  for  Mammals  smaller 
than  a  Mink.  In  large  specimens,  when  the  recent 
animal  is  at  hand,  I  arrange  the  rods  as  directed,  with- 


APPENDIX.  95 

out  fastening  them  to  the  stand.  Then,  after  making 
a  mould  in  plaster  of  the  entire  body,  head,  legs, 
and  all,  taking  care  to  place  the  body  in  some  life-like 
attitude,  I  place  the  frame  within  the  mould,  and  run 
plaster  around  it,  thus  completing  the  cast.  I  would 
advise  those  who  wish  to  arrive  at  early  perfection  in 
this  art,  to  take  a  few  lessons  in  plaster-casting.  The 
ears  of  Mammals  should  be  skinned,  and  the  mem- 
brane supplied  with  thin  sheet-lead,  fastened  to  the 
cast  or  skull  with  wire. 

Dried  skins  of  large  Mammals  are  mounted  upon 
models  made  of  plaster  and  clay. 


NOTE  TO  SEC.  II.  The  Dermal  Preservative  will  be 
found  excellent  in  preserving  the  skins  of  mammals,  in 
fact  it  completely  tans  them.  Take  a  moderately  sized 
skin,  for  example  that  of  a  fox ;  after  skinning  as  directed 
for  tanning,  keep  the  skin  right  side  out  and  rub  it  well 
with  Preservative,  keeping  it  in  a  warm  room  and  near 
a  fire  ;  as  soon  as  the  skin  begins  to  dry  a  little,  which 
will  occur  in  a  short  time,  it  should  be  scraped  with  a 
blunt  knife  to  remove  the  inner  skin.  This  peels  off  in 
strips ;  and,  as  the  skin  dries,  the  scraping  should  be 
continued,  at  the  same  time  the  skin  should  be 
stretched  and  rubbed,  continuing  until  the  whole 
becomes  soft.  Skins  that  have  been  dried  should  be 
soaked  in  water  in  which  a  quantity  of  Preservative  has 
been  dissolved,  then  treated  as  above  directed. 

I  now  mount  mammals  in  a  similar  manner  as  I  do 
birds,  with  equally  good  results.  Clay  and  plaster  are 
excellent,  but  great  care  must  be  exercised  not  to  over- 
fill the  animal,  for  if  this  be  the  case  the  skin  in 
shrinking  will  invariably  pull  out  the  stitches  where  it 


96  THE  NATURALIST'S  GUIDE. 

is  sewed  up,  or  will  break  in  some  thin  place  ;  experi- 
ence will,  however,  enable  one  to  overcome  this 
difficulty,  yet  in  ordinary  mounting  I  prefer  the  soft 
filling.  Small  mammals  are  stuffed  with  cotton,  large 
ones  with  excelsior,  as  described  in  Chapter  II., 
Section  III. 


CHAPTER  III. 

COLLECTING   AND   PRESERVING   INSECTS   FOB  THE 
CABINET. 

Beetles,  or  Coleoptera. —  If  Beetles  are  put  into  alco- 
hol, they  should  not  remain  in  it  long,  but  should  be 
either  pinned  or  packed  carefully  into  cotton-wool, 
when  they  may  be  transported  in  this  way. 

I  have  given  general  directions  for  collecting  Bee- 
tles, but  will  now  mention  each  family  in  detail. 

CiciNDELiD^;,;7Y<7er  Beetles,  are  found  in  dusty  roads, 
on  sand-beaches,  in  rocky  pastures, —  in  fact  I  have 
collected  them  in  nearly  all  places  which  were  devoid 
of  vegetation,  from  the  rocks  of  Grand  Menan,  to 
the  barren  salt-marshes  of  Florida.  They  are  very 
agile  insects,  but  may  be  caught  in  nets  quite  readily. 
The  larvae  live  in  holes,  in  sections  inhabited  by  the 
Beetles.  They  should  be  preserved  in  alcohol. 

CARABID^;,  Ground  Beetles. —  This  is  a  very  large 
family.  They  are  found  upon  the  ground,  under 
stones,  chips,  and  other  debris.  I  have  also  found 
some  species  washed  ashore  by  the  sea,  often  in  great 
numbers.  I  have  taken  many  of  the  species  of  the 
genius  Lebia  from  the  flowers  of  the  Golden  Eod.  All 
these  Beetles  prey  upon  other  insects,  or  feed  upon 
dead  animal  matter.  The  Iarvs6  are  found  in  similar 
situations  with  the  adults. 

AMPHIZOID.E.— Is  a  subaquatic  family,  and  is  re- 
stricted, in  its  distribution,  to  California. 

DYTISCID^E,  Diving -Beetles,  are  found  very  common 

97 


98  /UTENDIX. 

in  the  water,  and  with  the  larvae,  which  are  known 
as  Water-Tigers,  may  be  captured  with  a  net. 

GYRINID.E,  WJiirligigs. —  These  well-known  Beetles 
are  found  upon  the  surface  of  the  water ;  but  the 
larvae  live  beneath  it.  Both  may  be  taken  with  the 
net. 

HYDKOPHILID^,  Water-Beetles.—  These  are  small 
insects,  found  in  ponds  and  other  bodies  of  fresh 
water,  and,  with  the  larvae,  may  be  taken  with  the 
net. 

PLA.TYPSYLLID.E,  Parasitical  Beetles.  —  The  only 
species  which  represents  this  family  is  found  as  a  par- 
asite, on  the  American  Beaver.  I  have  never  found 
them  common,  however.  Indeed,  many  Beavers  do 
not  have  them  at  all. 

SILPHID^,  Carrion  Beetles.—  Members  of  this  family 
are  usually  large  and  showy  Beetles.  They  may  be 
captured  by  exposing  the  carcass  of  an  animal  during 
the  summer.  They  may  be  found  crawling  over  it  at 
night,  or  beneath  it  in  daytime. 

PSELAPHID.E. —  I  have  captured  species  of  this  fam- 
iry  flying  at  twilight.  Some  are  found  beneath  stones 
and  some  in  the  nests  of  ants.  They  are  all  small  in  - 
sects. 

SLAPHYLIXID.E,  Rose-Beetles. —  These  long-bodied 
singular-looking  Beetles  are  found  beneath  stones, 
leaves,  bits  of  wood,  etc. 

Mr.  Henry  Hubbard,  of  Cambridge,  informs  me  that 
he  has  captured  a  great  many  of  this  family,  and  mem- 
bers of  other  families  having  similar  habits,  by  gath- 
ering leaves  and  other  debris  in  the  woods,  and  sift- 
ing it  through  a  rather  co.trse  sieve  over  a  white  cloth. 
The  insects  will  then  fall  through.  I  have  found 
them  in  large  numbers,  with  species  having  similar 
habits,  beneath  stones,  during  a  dry  season  iu  lutumn. 


THE  NATURALIST'S  GUIDE.  99 

Some  species  are  found  on  flowers,  and  some  in  the 
dry  sand  of  sea-beaches.  One,  at  least,  occurs  in  fun- 
gus, and  a  few  species  under  the  excrements  of  ani- 
mals. 

HISTERIDJS.  —  I  have  found  many  of  these  Beetles 
beneath  the  excrement  of  cows,  especially  in  Florida. 
A  great  many  also  occur  in  carcasses,  while  one  is  only 
found  in  ants'  nests  in  early  spring. 

SCAPHIDIID.E.  —  These  small  insects  are  found  only 
in  fungi. 

TRICHOPTERYGID.E.  —  These  are  the  smallest  Beetles 
known,  and  are  found  beneath  the  bark  of  trees,  or  in 
ants'  nests. 

PHALACRID^E.  —  These  small  Beetles  are  found  both 
under  bark  and  on  flowers. 

NITIDULARI^B.  —  These  small,  flat  insects  are  found 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground,  under  bark  and 
stones. 

MONOTOMID^E  are  found  under  bark  of  trees. 

TROGOSITIDJS  occur  in  grain,  and  under  bark. 

COLTDIID.E  may  be  found  in  fungi,  or  under  bark. 

DERMESTID js,  Skin-Beetles.  —  This  is  the  family 
which  gives  so  much  trouble  to  collectors. 

Dermestes  lardarius  is  a  dark-colored  Beetle,  with 
greyish  buff  markings  on  the  base  of  the  wing  coverts. 
The  perfect  insect  gives  but  little  trouble ;  but  the  lar- 
vae, which  is  long,  and  cylindrical,  and  covered  with 
red  hairs,  is  particularly  destructive.  I  have  known 
these  larvae  to  destroy  small  skins  in  a  few  hours. 

Anthrenus  varius  is  another  museum  pest.  Both 
the  Beetles  and  the  larvae  attack  the  skin  of  the  feet, 
and  bills  of  birds. 

The  best  way  to  rid  skins  of  both  these  species  is,  to 
saturate  them  with  benzine.  This  will  not  injure  the 


100  APPENDIX. 

feathers  in  the  least.  All  skins  should  be  kept  in  in- 
sect-proof cases,  which  I  now  furnish. 

SCARAB^EID^:,  Horn-Beetles,  are  found  in  decaying 
wood,  animal  excrement,  on  flowers,  beneath  stones, 
on  sandy  beaches,  flying  at  twilight,  and  in  the  night. 
They  are  mainly  large  and  showy  insects.  Some  are 
found  feeding  on  the  flowing  sap  of  newly-cut  trees. 
The  larvae  are  found  in  decayed  wood  and  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  ground. 

BCPRESTID^E,  are  found  on  trees,  flowers,  and  in  de- 
cayed wood.  These  are  very  beautiful  Beetles. 

ELATERID^S,  Snap-Beetles,  occur  in  decaying  wood 
and  beneath  stones.  The  larvae  are  called  Wire- Worms, 
and  live  in  the  ground. 

LAMPYRID.E,  Fire-Flies. —  These  well-known  insect, 
are  found  on  grass  and  flowers.  The  larvae  are  called 
Glow-Worms. 

CLERID^E,  Flower-Beetles,  are,  as  the  name  implies, 
found  on  plants  and  flowers. 

TENEBRIONID^,  Meal-Beetles. —  The  larvae  are  called 
Meal- Worms,  and  are,  with  the  Beetles,  found  about 
mills,  and  in  grain,  flour,  etc. 

MELOIDJE:,  Blister -Beetles,  are  found  in  the  nests  of 
bees,  and  on  flowers,  especially  on  the  golden-rod. 

CORCULIOXID^E,  Weevils. —  This  is  an  extensive  fam- 
ily. I  have  captured  members  in  many  and  various 
situations.  During  the  early  summer  months  I  have 
taken  several  from  along  the  seashore,  where  they  were 
washed  ashore.  The  large  Palm- Weevil  of  the  South 
may  be  captured  in  palmetto  groves  in  the  evening,  or 
they  congregate  about  the  freshly-cut  trees,  to  feed  upon 
the  flowing  sap.  Many  species  are  found  in  the  bark 
of  trees  and  in  fruit.  They  also  occur  on  flowers  and 
in  the  stalks  of  plants. 

CERAMBYCID.E,  Long-Horneed  Beetles. —  I  have  cap- 


THE  NATURALIST'S  GUIDE.  101 

tured  many  species  in  wooded  districts  during  the  even- 
ing, when  they  were  flying  from  one  piece  of  woodland 
to  another.  They  occur  in  various  species  of  trees,  to 
which  the  larvae  do  much  damage  by  boring  into  them. 
Many  species  are  also  found  on  flowers  in  autumn. 

CHRTSOMELID^;,  Leaf-Beetles. —  These  Beetles  are 
found  on  leaves  and  flowers  of  plants.  They  may  be 
collected  by  beating  with  a  stout  net.  The  infamous 
Potato-Beetle  is  an  example.  The  larvaB  occur  on 
plants. 

COCCINELLID^:,  Lady-Birds. —  These  well-known 
Beetles  are  found  on  plants  and  trees. 

Hemiptera,  Bugs. —  The  well-known  Ciccadia  be- 
longs to  this  order.  They  may  be  captured  with  the 
net.  Many  species  of  this  order  may  be  taken  by 
beating  shrubbery  with  a  stout  net. 

Orthoptera,  Grasshoppers,  etc. —  I  now  kill  mem- 
bers of  this  order  with  the  fumes  of  benzine.  They 
should  be  placed  in  a  close  box  which  is  partly  filled 
with  cotton  cloth  which  has  been  saturated  with  ben- 
zine. In  pinning,  I  now  double  up  the  legs  of  the  larger 
species. 

GRYLLID.E,  Crickets. —  They  may  be  found  under 
stones,  pieces  of  wood,  etc.,  or  in  open  fields.  The 
Mole-Cricket  occurs  beneath  the  ground,  in  damp  lo- 
calities. Its  hiding-place  may  be  detected  by  its  song- 
notes. 

LOCUSTEAI^I,  Grasshoppers. —  The  collector  should 
learn  to  distinguish  members  of  this  family  by  the 
song.  Some  sing  only  at  night,  and  may  thus  be  cap- 
tured with  a  light.  They  are  always  found  on  grass, 
trees,  or  plants,  and  by  carefully  approaching  them, 
they  may  be  taken  in  a  net  or  with  the  hand.  Some 
species  which  inhabit  high  trees,  like  the  Katy-did 
(Cyrtophyllus  concavus]  are  difficult  to  procure.  The 


102  APPENDIX. 

various  species  of  the  genus  Ceuthophilus  and  allied 
genera,  called  Cave-Crickets,  are  found  under  stones, 
logs,  in  cellars,  and  in  caves. 

ACEYDII,  Locusts,  are  found  in  the  grass,  on  barren 
rocks  and  hills,  on  sandy  beaches,  on  marshes,  in 
meadows,  and  often  in  the  pine  woods,  especially  in 
the  South.  They  are  best  taken  with  the  net.  As 
many  of  the  species  have  cohered  wings,  the  rarer  ones 
are  quite  easily  detected.  They  are  often  exceedingly 
local  in  their  distribution,  and  members  of  certain 
species  may  be  found,  year  after  year,  in  the  same  lo- 
cality. 

PHASMJDA,  Walking-Sticks,  may  be  found  on  bushes, 
generally  in  rocky  pastures.  Some  of  the  species  are 
found  in  Florida  quite  abundantly,  on  the  trunks  of 
trees,  or  on  the  grass  in  the  pine-barrens. 

MANTID^,  Walking-Leaves,  are  found  on  leaves  of 
plants  and  shrubs. 

BLATTARI^;,  Cockroaches,  are  found  in  houses,  ships, 
etc. ;  but  some  species  are  found  under  bark  and  stones. 

FOKFICULARI^E,  Earwigs. —  I  have  found  these  in- 
sects in  great  numbers,  beneath  stones,  in  southern 
Florida.  Large  flights  occasionally  occur  at  night,  in 
the  north,  and  as  they  are  attracted  by  light,  they  are 
easily  taken. 

I  do  not  now  recommend  placing  even  the  larvae  of 
Oitlioptera  in  glycerine,  as  it  will  not  preserve  the 
color  for  any  length  of  time. 

Lepidoptera,  Moths  and  Butterflies. —  Especial  care 
should  be  taken  to  collect  the  larvae  of  the  various 
species ;  notes  should  also  be  taken  as  to  the  food- 
plants  of  the  larvae.  Mr.  Scudder  recommends  opening 
the  larger  species  of  larvae  behind,  and  removing  the 
contents  of  the  skin  by  compression.  Then  the  skin 
is  inflated  by  means  of  a  straw,  and  while  in  this  con- 


THE  NATUKAUST'S  GUIDE.  103 

dition  it  is  subjected  to  the  heat  of  a  small  oven,  be- 
neath which  is  an  alcohol-lamp.  The  specimen  is 
thus  dried  slowly,  and  moulded  into  a  natural  form. 
Then  by  inserting  a  copper  wire  it  can  be  mounted. 
The  smaller  larvae,  as  well  as  the  pupa,  should  be  placed 
in  alcohol.  The  latter,  if  covered  with  a  hard  shell 
may  be  removed  after  a  few  days,  and  dried. 

Casts  may  be  taken  of  the  larger  larvae,  and  colored 
as  describe  dunder  "  Eeptiles  and  Fishes." 


CHAPTER  IV. 

COLLECTING   AND  PRESERVING  FISHES   AND   REPTILES. 

SECTION  I.  Fishes. —  I  now  make  casts  of  Fishes, 
proceeding  as  follows  :  Place  the  Fish  side  down,  on 
a  plate  of  glass  or  other  smooth  surface,  and  cover  it 
with  plaster.  When  this  is  set,  remove  the  Fish  from 
the  under  side,  and  varnish  the  inside  of  the  mould 
thus  formed,  and  put  in  cream-plaster ;  then  lay  a  slab 
of  freshly-cast  plaster  over  the  whole,  and  after  the 
cast  has  set,  chip  away  the  mould.  The  cast  thus 
made  can  be  colored  to  represent  life.  Reptiles  may 
be  modeled  in  a  similar  manner. 

Salamanders  may  be  found  under  logs  and  stones 
in  damp  woods,  and  also  in  the  water. 

104 


CHAPTER  V. 

MISCELLANEOUS   COLLECTIONS. 

SECTION  I.  CRUSTACEA. —  Many  crabs  are  found 
under  stones,  logs,  etc.,  in  the  South.  Some  in- 
habit holes  on  the  shore  or  in  the  woods,  and  a  few 
climb  trees.  Some  can  only  be  obtained  by  dredging 
in  deep  water,  while  others  always  inhabit  the  shallow 
margins  of  bays,  etc.  Many  interesting  species  are 
found  clinging  to  seaweed  picked  up  floating  in  deep 
water,  while  others  are  taken  from  the  shells  of  living 
Mollusks.  A  few  species  occur  in  fresh  water  far  from 
the  sea,  and  at  least  one  has  been  taken  from  the 
caves  of  Kentucky. 

A  good  way  to  preserve  the  smaller  species  is,  to 
stitch  them  to  cardboard.  In  transporting  Crusta- 
ceans, they  may  be  packed  in  salt ;  then,  afterwards, 
washed  and  dried. 

COLLECTING   MOLLUSKS. 

SOLIGINID.E  AND  SOLIGOPSIDJE  Squid  and  Cuttle- 
fishes, may  be  found  floating  in  the  open  ocean,  or 
drifted  ashore  on  beaches.  They  may  be  taken  in  nets, 
or  by  dredging.  They  should  be  preserved  in  alco- 
hol, or  casts  taken  of  them. 

PHOLADID.E,  Boring-Shells. —  The  species  of  Teredo 
and  Xylotrya  are  found  in  timber  that  has  been  be- 
neath the  surface  of  the  water  for  some  time.  Some 
of  them  should  be  preserved  in  alcohol,  and  the  shells 
of  others  saved,  care  being  taken  to  keep  the  parts  of 
individual  shells  together.  Members  of  Pholus  and 

105 


106  APPENDIX. 

ZirfcBa  are  to  be  found  burrowing  in  clay,  mud,  or 
rock.  Care  should  be  taken  in  extracting  them,  as 
the  shells  are  fragile.  If  the  shell  be  immersed  in  hot 
water  for  a  moment,  the  animal  can  be  removed  with 
the  help  of  a  knife. 

SOLENID^E,  Razor-Shells,  may  be  found  burrowing 
in  the  sand  between  tide-marks.  They  may  be  col- 
lected and  treated  as  above,  care  being  taken  to  tie  the 
valves  together,  in  both  cases. 

MYAD.33,  Clams,  are  found  both  in  mud  and  sand, 
usually  between  tide-marks.  They  should  be  treated 
as  other  bivalves. 

COKBULID^:,  PAXDORIDJE,  AN-ATINIDJS,  MACTRAD.E, 
are  found  either  by  dredging,  or  thrown  on  sandy 
beaches. 

G-ASTROCH^XID^:  are  found  adhering  to  marine  ob- 
jects, or  embedded  in  marsh  or  clay. 

TELLINID.E  may  be  collected  along  sandy  beaches, 
between  tide-marks. 

LUCINID^E  are  inhabitants  of  deep  water,  or  mud- 
flats which  are  seldom  left  dry  by  the  tide. 

CYCLADID.E  are  all  small,  fresh-water  bivalves,  with 
quite  fragile  shells.  They  should  be  carefully  cleaned 
and  packed  in  cotton. 

CYPRIXID.E,  VEXERID^:,  CARDIAD.E,  and  ARCADE, 
are  all  salt-water  bivalves,  and  are  generally  only  to  be 
collected  by  dredging,  often  in  deep  water. 

UNIOXID^:,  Fresh-water  Mussels. —  These  may  be 
collected  in  large  numbers  on  river-bars  when  the 
water  is  low,  or  by  dredging  in  lakes  or  ponds.  I  do 
not  recommend  boiling  them,  but  they  should  be  ex- 
posed to  the  sun  for  a  short  time;  then,  when  dead, 
they  may  be  cleaned  with  a  knife.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  tie  the  valves  together.  The  outer  surface 
should  be  oiled  slightly. 


THE  NATURALIST'S  GUIDE.  107 

MYTILID^E,  Salt-water  Mussels,  may  be  found  on 
banks  left  exposed  by  the  tide,  or  adhering  to  posts, 
etc.,  which  stand  in  the  water,  or  embedded  in  salt 
marshes.  They  may  be  scalded  and  cleaned ;  but  care 
should  be  taken  to  preserve  the  byssus,  that  is,  the 
ligament  by  which  the  shell  fastens  itself  to  rocks,  etc. 

PECTENID^E,  Scallops. —  These  are  found  on  grassy 
mud-flats  that  are  not  left  exposed  by  the  tide.  They 
may  be  scalded  and  cleaned. 

OSTREID^;,  Oysters,  are  found  on  bars,  at  the  mouths 
of  rivers,  where  the  fresh  and  salt  water  mingles. 
They  may  be  scalded  and  cleaned.  Some,  however, 
are  found  in  salt  water,  clinging  to  other  shells,  stones, 
etc. 

TEREBRATULID^E. —  Found  usually  in  deep  water, 
off  the  coast. 

BULLID^:. —  These  are  fragile,  univalve  shells,  found 
on  mud-flats,  at  low  water.  They  should  be  boiled, 
cleaned,  and  wrapped  in  cotton. 

DORIDID^E,  TRITONIID^;,  ^EOLIDID^E,  ETC. —  These 
are  shell-less  Mollusks,  found  adhering  to  seaweeds. 
They  are  to  be  preserved  in  alcohol.  They  form  fine 
objects  for  the  aquarium. 

CHITO:STD.£,  Chitons. —  This  interesting  class  of  Mol- 
lusks which  are  covered  with  armadillo-like  bands,  are 
found  clinging  closely  to  the  rocks  between  tide-marks. 
The  animal  should  be  removed  with  a  knife,  and  the 
shells  laid  flat  on  a  plain  surface ;  then,  a  board  laid 
over  them,  to  keep  them  from  curling  when  they  dry. 

DESTTALID^E,  Tooth-Shells,  are  dredged  from  great 
depths.  They  are  cleaned  by  boiling. 

PATELLID^E  AISTD  CALYPTR^ID^E,  Cap-Shells,  cling 
to  rocks,  shells,  etc.  They  must  be  taken  unawares 
from  the  surface  to  which  they  cling,  or  it  will  be 


108  THE  NATURALIST'S  GUIDE. 

difficult  to  remove  them,  as  the  animals  will  contract 
and  adhere  very  firmly. 

ZANTHINIDJE. —  These  are  thin  little  shells,  highly 
colored,  which  float  on  the  open  ocean  by  means  of  a 
mass  of  vesicles.  They  are  quite  frequently  driven 
ashore  during  gales.  I  have  seen  vast  quantities  of 
them  on  the  Florida  Keys. 

TROCHID^  are  found  in  deep  water,  but,  being  small, 
are  frequently  washed  ashore  on  sand  beaches. 

PALUDIXID^;  are  fresh-water  shells,  and  are  pro- 
vided with  an  operculum,  which  appendage  should  be 
preserved  and  kept  with  the  shell,  either  by  gluing 
in  place  after  the  specimen  is  cleaned,  or  by  wrapping 
the  shell  in  paper.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  all 
operculated  shells. 

LITTORI^ID^E. —  Small  shells,  found  either  in  salt 
water  or  near  it,  adhering  to  plants  or  shrubs.  They 
often  occur  in  great  numbers.  I  have  seen  the  man- 
groves of  the  Florida  Keys  covered  with  the  Litorina 
scdbia,  and  the  grass  of  the  salt  marshes  at  Cedar 
Keys  was  covered  with  millions  of  Litorina  liiorea. 

TURRITELLID^;. —  The  so-called  Worm-Shells  occur 
in  great  numbers  on  the  Keys  of  Florida,  growing 
quite  frequently  in  sponges.  Other  members  of  the 
family  are  found  in  deep  water. 

CERITHIID^  are  found  both  in  the  salt  water,  often 
at  great  depths,  and  also  on  salt  marshes,  near  the 
water.  I  have  seen  the  ground  absolutely  covered 
with  some  species.  Others  are  found  clinging  to  sea- 
weeds. 

PYRAMIDELLID^E. —  These  are  all  small  shells,  and 
are  either  found  clinging  to  seaweeds  or  sheltered  by 
other  larger  shells. 

NATICID^;. —  Members  of  this  family  are  quite  fre- 
quently found  on  sandy  beaches,  or  in  shallow  water, 


APPENDIX. 


109 


near  the  shore.      The  animals  may  be  removed  by 
boiling. 

TUBRITID^E     AND     COLUMBELLID.ffl.  —  Found      On 

beaches,  and  also  in  mud-flats  and  in  deep  water. 

PUBPURID^E. —  Found  on  ocean  rocks  in  muddy 
creeks,  along  sandy  shores,  and  in  deep  water.  Pur- 
pura  capillus  is  very  abundant  on  the  rocks,  and 
countless  numbers  of  Nassa  obsoleta  are  found  in  the 
creeks,  from  Maine  to  North  Carolina. 

MURICID^E  are  found  in  deep  water,  and  along  shores 
and  flats  which  are  not  exposed  by  the  tide ;  -  while 
some  are  found  on  mud-flats. 

HELICID^E,  Land-Shells. —  Land-Shells  are  found 
beneath  stones,  logs,  etc.,  in  cellars,  and  clinging  to 
trees  and  plants.  They  are  very  abundant  in  some 
localities.  Some  are  also  found  in  fresh  water,  es- 
pecially in  springs,  where  they  are  sometimes  very  nu- 
merous. They  should  be  carefully  cleaned,  as  much 
of  their  beauty  and  value  depends  upon  this. 

ARIONID^E. —  This  is  a  family  of  Land-Shells,  some 
of  which  have  little  or  no  shells.  They  may  be  found 
on  trees  and  plants,  and  should  be  preserved  in  alcohol. 
Others,  like  the  genus  Zonites,  have  shells. 

PHILOMYCID^E  are  shell-less,  and  should  be  preserved 
in  alcohol. 

AURICULID.E.— Members  of  this  family  are  found 
on  the  land,  and  also  near  the  salt  water,  and  occa- 
sionally in  it,  as  in  some  species  of  Melampus. 

LIMK^EID^;. —  These  genera  are  all  represented  by 
species  which  live  in  fresh  water,  often  in  rivers  and 
lakes. 

SPIRULID^B  are  found  in  the  open  ocean,  and  occa- 
sionally drift  on  shore. 

All  shells  should  be  carefully  labeled  with  date  and 


110  APPENDIX. 

locality  in  which  they  are  collected.  Notes  as  to  the 
relative  abundance,  etc.,  should  be  made. 

Many  species  of  the  deep-water  species  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  stomachs  of  such  fishes  as  the  Cod. 
Others  may  be  found  in  the  gizzards  of  Ducks. 

Small  shells  which  cannot  be  cleaned  should  be 
placed  in  alcohol,  and  allowed  to  lie  for  at  least  twen- 
ty-four hours,  then  taken  out  and  dried  in  the  shade. 

Some  shells,  like  the  thin-shelled  Unices,  are  liable 
to  crack  when  dry ;  if  the  fresh  shell  be  dipped  into  a 
solution  of  chloride  of  calcium,  this  will  be  prevented. 

COBALS. 

GOBGONIAS,  Sea-Fans,  Sea-Pens,  frequently  grow 
in  comparatively  shoal  water.  I  have  often  seen  them 
left  exposed  by  the  falling  tide;  at  such  time,  they 
may  be  gathered  in  large  quantities,  for  they  are 
almost  always  abundant.  They  may  be  dried  care- 
fully in  the  shade;  then  they  will  not  lose  their  brill- 
iant colors. 

MILLEPORAS  and  other  branching  Corals. —  Some 
species  are  found  on  reefs  that  are  exposed  at  low  tide, 
but  some  must  be  obtained  by  dredging.  A  good  ma- 
chine for  collecting  is  made  in  the  following  manner : 
Procure  a  bar  of  iron  five  feet  long,  one  inch  thick, 
and  three  inches  wide ;  have  holes  one  inch  in  diam- 
eter drilled,  one  inch  apart,  for  the  entire  length. 
Next,  have  two  eye-bolts  fastened  in  near  each  end. 
Now,  pass  ropes,  one  inch  in  diameter  and  five  feet  in 
length,  through  the  holes,  taking  care  to  knot  them 
at  the  ends,  to  prevent  their  going  entirely  through. 
Then,  unravel  the  ropes  and  fasten  stout  lines  or 
chains  to  the  eye-bolts.  This  is  thrown  over-board, 
and  dredged  over  the  bottom,  when  the  Coral  will 


THE  NATURALIST'S  GUIDE.  Ill 

become  entangled  in  the  trailing-ropes,  and  brought 
up. 

ASTR.ECEA,  FUNGACEA,  ETC.,  Brain  and  Mushroom 
Coral. —  This  form  of  Coral  is,  perhaps,  the  hardest  to 
collect.  They  may  be  procured  by  expert  divers,  who 
break  them  loose  with  hammer  and  chisel,  or  they 
may  be  broken  off  with  a  sponging-hook,  and  thus 
brought  to  the  surface. 

PRESERVING   CORAL,   BLEACHING,   ETC. 

CORAL  that  is  to  be  preserved  with  the  natural  color 
should  be  carefully  dried  in  the  shade  ;  but  all  Corals 
may  be  bleached  nicely,  by  dipping  in  salt  water  once 
a  day,  and  exposing  to  the  sun.  They  should  be  first 
killed  by  exposing  them  for  a  few  hours  to  the  heat  of 
the  sun;  then  allowed  to  lie  for  twenty-four  hours 
in  water,  when  the  gelatinous  animals  will  be  dis- 
solved, and  will  run  out  of  the  cells.  Then  they 
should  be  rinsed  and  exposed  to  the  sun. 

ACTING,  Sea-Anemones,  may  be  looked  for  at  low 
tide  on  rocks,  or  found  by  dredging  (as  the  deep-water 
species  adhere  to  shells,  stones,  etc.).  They  may  be  re- 
moved from  a  smooth  surface  by  carefully  sliding 
along  until  some  is  introduced  beneath  the  .sucking 
disk,  when  they  will  become  loosened ;  or  they  may  be 
taken  off  by  means  of  the  blunt  edge  of  a  spoon  or 
some  similar  instrument.  These  objects,  which  are  so 
beautiful  while  living,  possessing  colors  which  vie  with 
the  flowers,  are  exceedingly  difficult  to  preserve.  They 
change  very  much  in  alcohol ;  but  Prof.  A.  Hyatt  in- 
forms me  that  he  has  found  picric  acid  the  best  me- 
dium by  which  the  colors  may  be  kept. 

HYDROIDS  AND  BRYOZOA. — I  have  found  quanti- 


112  APPENDIX. 

ties  of  these  in  shoal  water.  They  are  very  delicate, 
and  should  be  carefully  handled. 

Star-Fishes. —  I  have  at  times,  found  the  beaches 
covered  with  some  of  the  common  species,  but  the 
best  way  to  find  them  is  to  visit  the  rocks  where  they 
occur  at  low  tide ;  in  favorable  localities  they  may  be 
collected  by  thousands.  The  larger  species  occur  on 
flats,  while  some  are  only  to  be  obtained  by  dredging. 
Some  species  shed  their  arms  quite  easily;  these  should 
either  be  kept  in  salt  water,  or  thrown  at  once  into  al- 
cohol. Indeed,  all  species  are  best  kept  in  water  until 
they  assume  a  form  in  which  they  are  to  be  dried; 
then  they  should  be  instantly  plunged  into  strong 
alcohol,  where  they  must  remain  for  at  least  twenty- 
four  hours.  Then  they  may  be  removed  and  dried  in 
the  shade.  When  quite  dry,  I  have  found  it  advan- 
tageous to  dip  them  into  a  solution  of  hot  paraffine, 
as  this  prevents  their  disintegrating,  as  they  are  sub- 
ject to  this  trouble. 

ECHINODEKMS,  Sea-Urchins,  cling  to  rocks,  and 
may  be  found  at  low  water  or  dredged  in  deep  water. 
In  killing  them,  observe  the  same  precaution  as  prac- 
tised in  Star-fishes,  and  then  treat  them  in  the  same 
way. 

Sponges. —  Those  who  are  only  familiar  with  the 
dried  and  prepared  skeletons  of  the  sponges  of  com- 
merce would  be  surprised  to  see  one  of  these  animals 
in  its  native  state ;  indeed,  I  scarcely  think  the  un- 
initiated collector  would  "recognize  the  accustomed 
sponge  in  the  gelatinous  mass  which  grows  on  the 
banks  of  the  Florida  Keys.  Sponges  are  of  various 
forms,  some  of  which  are  very  beautiful.  They  are 
also  of  varying  colors.  Some  are  exceedingly  fragile, 
while  others  are,  when  dry,  as  hard  as  wood.  Some 
are  largely  made  up  of  siliceous  matter;  indeed,  long, 


THE  NATURALIST'S  GUIDE.  113 

needle-like  crystals  of  silica  are  to  be  found  in  greater 
or  less  quantities  in  almost  all  species. 

They  grow  in  various  situations ;  some  few  occur  in 
fresh  water,  but  they  mainly  inhabit  the  sea.  I  have 
found  them  encrusting  rocks,  pieces  of  shells,  growing 
on  submerged  posts,  and  one  or  two  species  I  have 
taken  from  the  backs  of  the  more  sluggish  species  of 
Crabs.  A  few  float,  or  rather  roll,  about  on  the  bot- 
tom ;  these  usually  occur  in  secluded  bays  or  sounds, 
where  there  is  but  little  sea.  The  greater  portion  are 
found  attached  to  the  bottom,  often  in  great  depths 
of  water;  but  many  are  found  growing  on  banks,  in 
from  three  to  four  fathoms.  I  have  also  collected  a 
great  many  in  exceedingly  shoal  water,  near  the  shore. 
I  have  seen  thousands  of  the  deep-water  species,  washed 
ashore  by  the  actions  of  the  waves,  during  hurricanes. 

The  sponges  which  occur  in  shoal  water  may  be  re- 
moved by  help  of  a  knife ;  but  the  deep-water  species 
are  gathered  with  a  sponge-hook,  which  is  simply  a 
two-pronged  fork,  bent  into  a  hook.  The  spongers  of 
the  Bahama  Islands  and  the  Florida  Keys  use  what  is 
called  a  water-glass,  to  discover  the  sponges  on  the 
bottom.  This  is  a  cylinder  of  wood  or  metal,  of  about 
ten  inches  in  diameter,  having  a  glass  bottom.  This 
is  placed  in  the  water,  bottom  down,  and  thus  the 
operator  can  see  the  sponges  quite  easily  through  the 
glass,  even  if  there  is  a  ripple  on  the  water,  which 
would  otherwise  prevent  his  seeing  to  any  depth. 

Sponges  should  be  dried  in  the  shade,  without  ex- 
posing to  the  sun,  care  being  taken  that  they  do  not 
absorb  dampness  from  the  atmosphere,  as  then  they 
are  apt  to  decay. 

The  skeletons  are  procured  in  the  following  way : 
The  sponges  are  first  exposed  for  a  day  or  two  to  the 
influence  of  the  sun,  then  are  thrown  into  what  is 


114  APPENDIX. 

known  as  a  "  sponge  crawl,"  which  is  simply  a  large 
pen  with  slatted  sides,  placed  in  some  swift  tide-way. 
They  are  kept  here  until  thoroughly  macerated,  which 
-process  occupies  about  a  month.  They  are  then  stirred 
about,  and  beaten  until  all  the  animal  matter  is  re- 
moved, when  they  are  dried.  Many  of  the  sponges  of 
[commerce  are  bleached  with  chloride  of  lime,  which, 
Although  it  improves  their  looks,  is  at  the  expense  of 
the  durability  of  the  tissues. 

SECTION  II.  Preparing  Skeletons. —  I  do  not  now 
recommend  using  chloride  of  lime.  The  bones  should 
remain  under  water,  in  some  glass  or  wooden  vessel? 
until  every  particle  of  fleshy  matter  is  dissolved.  If 
the  bones  are  oily  after  they  are  bleached,  they  should 
be  once  more  immersed  in  water,  and  kept  there  until 
clean.  Skeletons  of  large  Mammals  often  require 
more  than  a  year  to  macerate  them  properly.  I  now 
remove  all  horny  portions,  even  of  the  feet  and  bill. 
In  articulating  small  bones,  I  now  make  use  of  a  very 
strong  cement,  which  is  advertised  in  my  catalogue  ot 
taxidermists'  supplies. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

COLLECTING  AND   PRESERVING  EGGS. 

Too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  to  clean  eggs.  The 
contents  must  be  thoroughly  removed,  to  accomplish 
this,  and  all  eggs  should  be  rinsed.  Eggs  of  all  spe- 
cies should  be  kept  in  sets ;  and,  where  it  is  possible, 
the  nest  should  be  collected  with  them.  In  packing 
eggs  for  transportation,  wrap  each  one  separately  in 
cotton,  and  place  in  a  box  lined  with  the  same  ma- 
terial. Capt.  Chas.  Bendike,  who  is  the  most  careful 
egg-collector  that  I  ever  met,  and  his  beautifully- 
prepared  and  extensive  collections  bear  ample  testi- 
mony to  this  statement,  packs  eggs  in  the  following 
manner :  The  box  is  first  lined  with  cotton-batting  ; 
then  the  eggs  are  placed,  side  by  side,  in  partitions 
made  of  the  same  material,  which  is  cut  in  strips  for 
tnis  purpose;  then  a  layer  of  cotton  is  placed  over 
them,  more  eggs  packed,  and  so  on  until  the  box  is 
filled.  115 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

iiiiiiiiiiill 

AA    000483791    o 


SOUTHERN  BRANCH, 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 

LIBRARY, 

•UDS  ANGELES.  CALIF. 


